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HARVARD UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

OF THE

DEPARTMENT OF MOLLUSKS

IN THE

Museum of Comparative Zoology
Gift of:

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HARVARD UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

OF THE

DEPARTMENT C? MOLLUSKS

IN THE

Museum of Comparative Zoology
Gift of:

Richard "VV. Fo

§9

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSOA.

LONDON :

PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,

ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.

del.—G.B Sowerby, litb..

Tincent Brooks , Imp

1& 2. Helix, Pomatia- Apple or Vine snail.

3 & 4 . Helix Nemoralis _Woo d snail

5 Helix Aspersa_Common Garden snail
6. Helix Pisana _the Banded snail

THE

EDIBLE MOLLUSCA

OF

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

WITH

Recipes for Cooking tfum.

BY

M. S. LOVELL.

' And the recipes and different modes of dressing
I am prepared to teach the world for nothing,
If men are only wise enough to learn."

AthencEus, Deipnox, Book iii. c. 69.

SECOND EDITION.

LONDON :

L. REEVE AND CO.,

5, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN.

1884.
[All rights reserved.]

PREFACE.

In these days, when attention has been so much
directed towards the cultivation of the common kinds
of eatable shell-fish, it is surprising that the im-
portance of certain others for food has been hitherto
almost entirely overlooked. We understand the good
qualities of oysters, cockles, and a few other kinds ;
but some equally nutritious (which are universally
eaten on the Continent) are seldom, if ever, seen in
our markets, or are only used locally as food, and the
proper modes of cooking them are scarcely known.
I have therefore endeavoured to call attention to all
the eatable species common on our coasts, and also
to those which, though not found here in abundance,
might be cultivated as easily as oysters, and form
valuable articles of food.

M. S. LOYELL.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Pholadid^: ........ 1

Myadjs 8

SOLENIDiE . . . . . . . .13

Tellinid^: ... 18

Mactrid^e ........ 22

Venerid^ 25

CYPRINIDiE 39

Cardiad^: . 41

Mytilid^j 58

Aviculid^e 85

Pectinid^e ........ 103

OSTREADiE . . . . . . . . . 124

Patellhle 172

Haliotid^e 179

LittoriniDjE 187

muricid^e 191

Helicid^: 209

Sepiad^: 245

ClDARIDiE 268

List of Works referred to or consulted . . . 275

Index 289

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plate I. (Frontispiece?)

1. & 2. Helix pomatia. Vine Snail.

3. & 4. Helix nemoralis. Wood Snail.

5. Helix aspersa. Common Garden Snail,

6. Helix Pisana. Banded Snail.
Plate II. Pholas dactylus. Piddock or Clam.
Plate III. 1. My a truncata. Gaper.

2. Solen siliqua. Razor-shell.
Plate IV. 1. Psammobia vespertina. The Setting Sun.

2. Mactra solida. Trough Shell.
Plate V. 1. Tapes pullastra. Pullet.

2. Venus verrucosa. Warty Venus.
Plate VI. Isocardia cor. Heart-Shell or Oxhorn-

Cockle.
Plate VII. 1. Cardium edule. Common Cockle.

2. Cardium rusticum. Red-nose Cockle.
Plate VIII. 1. Mytilus edulis. Common Mussel.

2. Ostrea edulis. Oyster.
Plate IX. Pinna pectinata. Sea-wing.

Plate X. 1. Pecten opercularis. Painted Scallop.

2. Pecten maximus. Scallop.
Plate XI. 1. Haliotis tuberculata. Ormer or Sea-ear.

2. Patella vulgata. Limpet.
Plate XII. 1. Buccinum undatum. Whelk.

2. & 3. Littorina littorea. Periwinkle.

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

PIDDOCKS, GAPERS, RAZOK-FISHES, ETC.

Fam. PHOLADIELE.
PHOLAS.— PIDBOGK.

Pholas Dactylus, Linnaeus. Piddock or Clam. —
Shell equi valve, oblong-ovate, gaping chiefly anteriorly,
inequilateral, thick, white exteriorly and inside polished ;
exterior covered with longitudinal furrows and con-
centric striae, with sharp radiating spines; no hinge;
beaks hidden with callosities ; a flattened spoon-shaped
tooth, which curves forward, in each valve; accessory
valves four in number.

The perforating powers of the Pholas have for a
length of time been a subject of discussion amongst
naturalists, and appear likely to continue so. Some
thought that by means of its foot it perforated the soft
clay or stone which hardened round it ; and a Dutch
philosopher named Sellius, nearly 130 years ago, pub-
lished an account of the Teredo, wherein he showed
that its shell could not be the instrument of perforation,
and asked how it was possible that the extremely
tender shell of the young Teredo could make a hole in

B

2 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

solid oak — a material ten times harder than itself. He
also observed that the form of the tube is evidently
not the result of an auger-like instrument, because it
is broader at the bottom than at the top and sides.

Dr. J. G. Jeffreys, who quotes the above in his
1 British Conchology/ agrees with Sellius that the foot
or muscular disk, and not the shell, is " the sole instru-
ment of perforation by the mollusca of stone, wood,
and other substances, which is closely applied to the
concave end of the hole, and is constantly supplied
with moisture through the glandular tissues of the
body." He adds, " By this simple, yet gradual process,
the fibres of wood or grains of sand-stone may easily
be detached or disintegrated, time and patience being
allowed for the operation." Some naturalists believe
that it is accomplished by means of an acid contained
in the fish, by which it dissolves the calcareous rocks ;
while others maintain that the Pholas bores by using
its shell as a rasp. This mechanical process is fully
described by " Astur/' who, from his own observa-
tions, has endeavoured to solve the problem, and who,
to quote the late Mr. Buckland's words, is apparently
the only person "who has ever seen the Pholas at work."
In the ( Field/ " Astur" published some time since an
interesting description of the method by which this
mollusk bores its habitation. He says, " Having pro-
cured several of these mollusks in pieces of timber, I
extracted one, and placed it loose in my aquarium, in
the vague hope that it would perforate some sand-
stone on which I placed it. It possessed the powers
of locomotion, but made no attempt to bore. I then
cat a piece of wood from the timber in which it had
been found, and placed the Pholas in a hole a little

PIIOIADID.-E. PIDDOCK. 3

more than an inch deep. Its shell being about two
inches long, this arrangement left about an inch and
three-quarters exposed. After a short time the animal
attached its foot to the bottom of the hole, and com-
menced swaying itself from side to side, until the hole
was sufficiently deep to allow it to proceed in the
following manner. It inflated itself with water appa-
rently to its fullest extent, raising its shell upwards
from the hole ; then, holding by its muscular foot, it
drew its shell gradually downwards. This would have
produced a perpendicular and very inefficient action,
but for a wise provision of nature. The edges of the
valves are not joined close together, but are connected
by a membrane; and, instead of being joined at the
hinge, like ordinary bivalves, they possess an extra
plate attached to each valve of the shell, which is
necessary for the following part of the operation. In
the action of boring, this mollusk, having expanded
itself with water, draws down its shell within the hole,
gradually closing the lower anterior edges, until they
almost touch. It then raises its shell upwards, gradu-
ally openiug the lower anterior edges and closing the
upper, thus boring both upwards and downwards.
The spines (points) on the shells are placed in rows,
like the teeth of a saw ; those toward the lower part
being sharp and pointed, whilst those above, being-
useless, are not renewed. So far for the operation of
boring; but how to account for the holes fitting the
shape of the animal inhabiting them ? To this I fear-
lessly answer, that this is only the case when the
Pholas is found in the rock which it entered when
small. This mollusk evidently bores merely to protect
its fragile shell, and not from any love of boring ; and

b 2

4 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

in this opinion I am borne out by my own specimens.
The young Pholas, haviDg found a substance suitable
for a habitation, ceases to bore immediately that it has
buried its shell below the surface of the rock, &c. It
remains quiescent until its increased growth requires a
renewal of its labours. It thus continues working deeper
and deeper, and, should the substance fail or decay, it
has no alternative but to bore through, and seek some
fresh spot where it may find a more secure retreat/'

At Amroth, near Tenby, is a submerged forest, the
trees of which are completely perforated by the Pholas;
and at spriug-tides fine specimens may be collected.
Montagu remarks that, whilst it is the general habit
of shipworms (Teredo navalis, or Teredo norvegica) to
bore parallel with the grain, the Pholas perforates the
wood across the grain.*

Dr. J. G. Jeffreys mentions that Redi, in a letter to
his friend Megalotti, describes the Teredo as being not
only eatable, but excelling all shellfish, the oyster not
excepted, in its exquisite flavour. Nardo also praises
it, and wonders why the Venetians, who call it Bisse del
legno, do not eat it.f

The German name for the Pholas is very appropriate,
viz., die Bohr muschel, Steinbohrer, or pierce-stone; in
France it is called le Bail commun, Gite, or Pitau ; in
Spain, Foladoj Almeixa-bravas ; in Minorca, Peus de
cobra and Batil del mar; and in Sicily, Battoli di mari.

An old fisherman told me that the Pudworm, as he
called it, was a very delicate fish ; and he had often
noticed on the Hampshire coast, that at low spring-
tides in the winter, when sharp frosts set in, and when

* Forbes and Hanley, ' British Mollusca.'
t ' British Concbology,' vol. iii. p. 159.

PHOLADID^. PIDDOCK. 5

that part of the shore where these mollusks bury
themselves, is left exposed by the tide, they are all
killed. He was in the habit of collecting the Pholas
dactylus as bait for white fish, digging them out of the
clay or shale ; and he added that if he kept them a
day or so before using them, they changed colour, and
shone like glowworms, even shone quite brightly in
the water, some distance below the surface, when put
on the hooks for bait. This reminds me of the follow-
ing quaint lines in Breton's f Ourania/ quoted in
Daniel's ' Rural Sports :' —

"The glowworme shining in a frosty night
Is an admirable thing in Shepheard's sight.
Twentie of these wormes put in a small glasse,
Stopped so close that no issue doe passe,
Hang'd in a Bow-net and suncke to the ground
Of a poole or lake, broad and profound,
Will take such plentie of excellent fish
As well may furnish an Emperor's dish."

The luminosity of the Pholas after death is referred
to by Pliny, who says, " The onyches shine in the dark
like fire, and in the mouth even while they are eaten;"*
and, " that it is the property of the dacijtlus (a fish so
called from its strong resemblance to the human uail)
to shine brightly in the dark, when all other lights are
removed, and the more moisture it has the brighter is
the light emitted. In the mouth, even while they are
eaten, they give forth their light, and the same, too,
when in the hands; the very drops, in fact, that fall
from them on the ground, or on the clothes, are of the
same luminous nature." f

* Pliny, ' Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. c. 51. Throughout this volume
I have used the translations of Pliny and Athenams in Bonn's Series of
Classical Authors,

t Idem. vol. ii. bk. ix. c. 87.

6 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Co.sta, as quoted by Dr. J. G. Jeffreys in his ' British

Conchology/ says that it is so phosphorescent, that if
the flesh is chewed and kept in the mouth, the breath
becomes luminous and looks like a real flame.

Dr. Coldstream states that " the phosphorescent
light of this mollusk is given out most strongly by the
internal surfaces of the respiratory tubes, and that it
is strongest in summer; and Professor John Miiller
has observed, that when Pholades are placed in a
vacuum, the light disappears, but reappears on the
admission of air; also, that when dried, they recover
their luminous property on being rubbed or moistened.*

Many others have also made experiments with the
Pholas, and have studied its phosphorescence, viz.,
Reaumur, Beccaria, Marsilius, Galeatus, and Moutius.
The two first mentioned endeavoured to render this
" luminosity permanent, and the best result was ob-
tained by placing the dead mollusk in honey, by which
its property of emitting light lasted more than a year.
Whenever it was plunged into warm water, the body
of the Pliolas gave as much light as ever."f

Beccaria also found that a single Pholas "rendered
seven ounces of milk so luminous that the faces of
persons might be distinguished by it, and it looked as
if transparent/^

Pholas clactylus, or the long oyster, as it is called at
Weymouth, is not often eaten in England, but is
generally used for bait. A Newhaven fisherman, how-
ever, told me they sometimes collect some for eating
from the chalk boulders, between Newhaven and

* Forbes and Hanly, vol. i. p. 107.

t < Phosphorescence,' by T. L. Phipson, Ph.D., F.C.S., p. 105.

% Ibid. p. 104.

PHOLADID.E. — PIDDOCK.

Brighton ; that they were much more pleasant to the
taste than whelks ; and they only scald or boil them
for a few minutes.

In France, in the neighbourhood of Dieppe, a great
many women and children, each provided with an iron
pick, are employed in collecting them either for sale
in the market or for bait. #

I find from Mr. Morton, of St. Clement's, Jersey,
who kindly sent me much information respecting the
shell-fishes used as food in the Channel Islands, that
in Jersey the Pholas is plentiful, and is sold in the
market boiled ready for eating. In Spain it is con-
sidered as next best to oysters, and is sometimes eaten
raw. All the Pholades are edible, and a large
West Indian species, Pholas costata, is much prized,
and is regularly sold in the markets of Havana, as
we are informed by Forbes and Hanley. Athenseus
recommends these shellfish, as they are very nu-
tritious, but he adds that they have a disagreeable
smell.f

The Normandy method of cooking the Pholas (le dail
eommun) is to dress them with herbs and breadcrumbs,
or pickle them with vinegar. J

Large quantities of this fish are sold in the markets
of La Rochelle, and Captain Bedford says that the
Pholas crispata is eaten by the poor of Oban.§

* ' British Conchotomy,' vol. iii. p. 102.

f ' Deipnosophists,' vol. i. bk. iii. c. 35, p. 146.

J * Cottage Gardener,' vol. i. p. 382.

§ ' British Conchotomy,' vol. iii. p. 114.

8 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Fam. MY ADM.
MYA.— GAPER.

Mya Truncata, Linnaeus. Gaper or Truncated Mya.
— Shell equal-valved, suboval, gaping much at the
small end, truncated and swollen at the other, covered
with a pale greenish epidermis, which also continues
over its long broad tube and mantles; valves wrinkled
transversely ; beaks depressed ; umbones prominent,
but unequal ; a large spoon- shaped tooth in left
valve, with a socket or hollow in the other; ligament
internal.

Of the three species of Myadce which inhabit our
British seas, two of them are used for food, viz. Mya
truncata (the one figured) and Mya arenaria, which
last is much eaten at Naples. At Belfast this shell is
called " Cockle brillion," * evidently the same name as
that applied in Brittany to the winkle, viz. vrelin or
hrelin. They live buried in the sand or mud, in an
upright position, at the mouths of rivers and estu-
aries near low-water mark, and at low tide their
locality is known by the holes in the surface. It re-
quires much labour and patient digging, sometimes to
the depth of more than a foot, to procure a dish of
these esculents, therefore they are not so common an
article of food as others which are more easily gathered.
In Orkney, Mya truncata is called Kunyu, and is not
only eaten, but is used as bait for cod-fishing. The
Zetlanders call it SmursUn, the Feroese, Smirslingur.
They eat it boiled. In German it is the KlaffniusrJirJ.
On some parts of the Devonshire coast it is known as

* 'British Conchology,' vol. iii. p. 65.

MYAD^. GAPER. 9

the spoon-shell, probably owing to the wide spoon-
shaped tooth in the left valve. The length of a full-
grown specimen is about 3 inches, by 2\ in breadth.
Mya arenaria is larger than Mya truncata, longer and
more pointed at the gaping end, equally coarse and
rugged in appearance, its colour varying according to
the nature of the soil in which it buries itself.
Montagu states that this species is eaten at South-
ampton, and called "old maid;"* but upon making
inquiry there I cannot discover that they are now
known by that name. In Chichester harbour and in
Fareham Creek the poorer classes collect them for
eating, and call them " pullers." At Youghal the
name for them is " sugar-loons," and in Dublin
"colliers," and at both places they are considered
good bait, and fit to eat ; but at Youghal they warn
you to be careful to take off the skin which covers the
outside of the shell and tube, as it is supposed to be
poisonous. However, it is probably harmless, except
in cases where it causes indigestion ; but I believe
Mya arenaria has been known really to disagree with
some people, and Miss Ball mentions a friend being
very uncomfortable after eating one. The Hampshire
people do not seem to have noticed this peculiarity.
I cannot let this opportunity pass without expressing
my sincere thanks to Miss Ball for much valuable in-
formation, which she kindly sent to me from Ireland,
respecting the various edible mollusks.

Mya arenaria (Mye des sables) may occasionally be
seen exposed for sale in the market at Bordeaux.

It is the Soft Clam of America, and there it is most
highly esteemed as food, and also as bait. Mr. Earll
* Forbes and Hanley, * British Mollusca.'

10 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

(of the United States Commission) gave some interest-
ing details at one of the Conferences held in connection
with the International Fisheries Exhibition, London,
1883, respecting the extent to which My a arenaria is
used in the United States. He says, " In the State
of Maine 318,000 bushels, or 1,000,000 lbs. of this
mollusk were used for bait and for food. In Massa-
chusetts an equal quantity, if not more, and in the
Middle States 406,000 bushels, makiug in all over
1 ,000,000 bushels, having a value to fishermen of
458,000 dollars. He had not the statistics for Con-
necticut, Rhode Island, and some of the other States
where these shellfish were also used in considerable
quantities, but including them it might be said that
over a million and a quarter bushels, valued at probably
not less than 600,000 dollars, were used on the Atlantic

sea-board Some fishermen on the coast confined

themselves to the quarrying, as it was called, of these
shellfish, for they had the habit of burying themselves
two or three inches deep in the mud or sand of the
shallow bays along the shore. This industry afforded
employment to a large number of fishermen at a time
when nothing else could be done. Some of the smaller
vessels, not considered safe to encounter the winter
gales, were taken into the shallow waters, and served
as hotels and work-houses for the men engaged in
quarrying the clams. These men spent two or three
months in gathering a vessel-load, shelling them and
salting them, to be sold in the early spring to the
vessels engaged in the great ocean cod fisheries ;
whilst large numbers were also engaged during the
entire summer gathering them to be sold in the larger
markets for food, where they were prized very highly

MYAD2E. GAPER. 11

by both rich and poor." * In New York they are sold
at three dollars per hundred, and, retail, thirty-five
cents per dozen, and are best in cold weather.

Mr. R. E. C. Stearns, in the c American Naturalist ;'
May, 1881, mentions the introduction (probably re-
cently) of Mya arenaria in the Bay of San Francisco,
and that it is now one of the most abundant species of
shellfish to be seen in the markets.

Myadce are widely distributed, and are not only food
for man, but for the walrus and other northern animals,
besides birds and fishes, which relish them greatly.
Captain Tackey, in his expedition to the river Zaire,
or Congo, found that a species of Mya was much
sought after by the natives, and that three or four
hundred canoes were met with near Draper's Islands,
in which the people were busily engaged in dragging
up these shellfish ; having made temporary huts by
bending and entwining living branches of trees, be-
sides, occupying caverns in the rocks with their
families during the fishing-season. The shells were
opened, and the fish having been taken out was dried
in the sun. The Chinese name for Mya arenaria is
" Tse-ga," and they consider it a great delicacy, and
they eat it with a seasoning, of which onion is the
base.f

A Clam dredger was exhibited at the International
Fisheries Exhibition in the Chinese collection. It
was a rake, which is fastened round the waist of the
fisherman with a rattan band. He walks backwards

* Papers of the Conferences held in connection with the Great
International Fisheries Exhibition : * Mollusks, Mussels, Whelks,' &c.
by Charles Harding.

f ' Notice sur la Malacolo./ie du littoral de l'Empire Chinois,' par
Odon Desbeau. ' Journal de Conchyliologie,' tome xi. 1863.

12 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

through the shallow water drawing the rake towards
him ; and when the iron comes in contact with any-
thing hard he feels with his foot, and if it prove to be
a clam, he picks it up and goes on as before.

Youghal way of Cooking Sugar-loons. — Boil them ;
take them out of the shell, and eat them with a little
butter, taking care to cut off the outside skin.*

Hampshire Method of Cooking Myadce. — Wash the
shells well, then boil quickly for a few minutes; as
soon as the shell opens, the fish is cooked. Do not let
them boil longer, as it makes them hard, and spoils
the flavour. A little vinegar and pepper can be added
as a relish.

Clam Soup. — Two small bunches of young, soft
clams ; cut out the round fat parts, chop the hard
parts with twenty-five hard clams medium sized ; put
these into the juice with a little water, and boil from
two to three hours, then put in the round parts, with a
piece of butter and a little pepper, and boil fifteen
minutes ; add a pint of hot milk, and let it just come
to a boil before serving, f

To Boil soft Claras.- — Wash the shells clean, and put
the clams, the edges downwards, in a kettle; then pour
about a quart of boiling water over them ; cover the
pot and set it over a brisk fire for three quarters of an
hour ; pouring boiling water on them causes the shells
to open quickly and let out the sand which may be in
them. Take them up when done; take off the black
skin which covers the hard part, trim them clean, and
put them into a stewpan ; put to them some of the
liquor in which they were boiled ; add to it a good bit

* Miss Ball. t ' Every Day's Need.'

SOLENID^]. RAZOR-SHELL. 13

of butter, and pepper and salt to taste ; make them
hot ; serve with cold butter and rolls.*

Stewed soft shell Clams. — Get fifty clams taken from
their shells, and freed from the black skin; wash- them
well in clear water and put them in a stewpan with
very little water ; cover and set it over a gentle fire
for half an hour ; then add to them a bit of butter the
size of a large egg, or larger ; dredge in a tablespoon-
ful of flour, and salt and pepper to taste ; stir it in
them ; cover the stewpan for ten minutes, then serve
hot. Many persons like the addition of a wine-glass
of vinegar.f

To Fry soft Clams. — Get them taken from the shell,
as they are very troublesome to clean. Wash them in
plenty of water, and lay them on a thickly folded
napkin to dry out the water ; then roll a few at a time
in wheat flour, until they will take up no more.
Have a thick-bottomed frying-pan one third full of
boiling hot lard, and salted (in proportion, a table-
spoonful of salt to a pound of lard), lay the clams in
with a fork, one at a time ; lay them close together
and fry gently, until one side is a delicate brown,
then turn carefully and brown the other ; then take
them off and put on a hot dish. When fried properly,
these clams are very excellent.*

Fam. SOLENIDjE.

SOLFN.— EAZOR-SHELL.

Solen Siliqua, Linnaeus. Razor Shell. — Shell
straight, open at both extremities. Two teeth in left

* Mrs. Crowen's 'American Lady's Cookery Book.'
t Ibid. J Ibid.

14 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLIXSCA.

valve, and one in the other; exterior covered with an
olivaceous epidermis, concentrically striated. Breadth
1 inch, length from 7 to 8 inches.

The razor or spout-fishes are all good for food, but
Solen siliqua, which is the largest of our British
species, is the one generally collected for that purpose.
Solen ensis is eaten in the Feroe Isles, and is there
called Langskoel; and Solen marginatus, commonly
known as Vagina, is greatly prized as an article of food
by the Neapolitans. This last-named species has a
wide range abroad, but is not so common in this
country as the two above-mentioned shells, though it
is abundant in some localities, amongst others Rye,
Tenby, and the Channel Islands. In the Isle of Man
the razor-fish is called Eeast-gholvirragh.

The razor-shell is the aulo of the Romans; and
Aristotle, in his ' History of Animals/ gives a descrip-
tion of it, stating that "it buries itself in the sand,
can rise and sink in, but does not leave its hole, is
soon alarmed by noise, and buries itself rapidly; and
that the valves of the shell are connected together at
both sides, and their surface smooth."*

However, according to Dr. J. G. Jeffrey s, the power of
locomotion of the Solen is not confined to burrowiEg;
as they can dart from place to place in the water as
quickly as the scallop, and apparently in the same way.

In the time of Athengeus it was much eaten, and
highly valued, if we may judge from the following
quotations in his ' Deipnosophists :' —

" Araros says, in his ' Campylion/ —

" These now are most undoubted delicacies,
Cockles and solens.

* Forbes and Hanley, ' Brit. Moll.' vol i. p. 240.

SOLENID^E. RAZOR-SHELL. 15

" And Sophron says, in his ' Mimi/ —

" A. What are these long cockles, O my friend,
Which you do think so much of?
B. Solens, to be sure;

This, too, is the sweet-flesh 'd cockle, dainty food,
The dish much loved by widows." *

Epicharrnus, in his play of the ' Marriage of Hebe/
mentions the oblong solens.

Again, Athenasus says, — "But the solens, as they
are called by some, though some call them avXot and
Bova/ces, or pipes, and some, too, call them ovules , or
claws, are very juicy, but the juice is bad, and they are
very glutinous. And the male fish are striped, and
not all of one colour, but the female fish is all of one
colour, and much sweeter than the male ; and they are
eaten boiled and fried, but they are best of all when
roasted on the coals till their shells open. And the
people who collect this sort of oyster are called Solenistce,
as Phasnias the Eresian relates in his book, which is
entitled ' The Killing of Tyrants by way of Punish-
ment ;' where he speaks as follows: — 'Philoxenus,
who was called the Solenist, became a tyrant from
having been a demagogue. In the beginning he got
his living by being a fisherman and a hunter after
solens; and so, having made a little money, he advanced
and got a good property.'' "

On some parts of our shores great quantities of
razor-shells are collected, sometimes by putting a little
salt on the holes, which irritates the fish, and makes it
rise to the surface ; and again in the following manner,
as described by Messrs. Forbes and Hanley : — " A long
narrow wire, bent and sharpened at the end, is sud-

* Athenseus, vol. i. b. iii. p. 144, Bonn's Classical Library.

16 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

denly thrust into the hollows of the sands indicative of
the presence of these animals, and, passing between
the valves, the barbed portion fixes itself, on retraction,
in the animal, and forces it to the surface. "

Poli gives an account of Solen-fishing at Naples.
He tells us that the lurking-place of the Solen is
betrayed by a hole in the sand, agreeing in shape with
the apertures of its tubes or siphons. Where the
water is shallow the fisherman sprinkles some oil on
the surface, in order to see these marks more clearly.
He then steadies himself by leaning on a staff with his
left hand, and feels for the Solen with his naked right
foot. This he catches, and holds between his great
toe and the next ; but although his toes are protected
by linen bands, the struggles of the Solen to escape
are so violent, and the edges of the shell so sharp, that
often a severe wound is inflicted by it. Where the sea
is five or six feet deep, the fisherman dives or swims
under water with his eyes open, and after finding the
holes, digs with his hands for the razor-fish.* At
Tenby baskets-full are often brought to the door, and
they are considered very good to eat. In Japan they
are said to be so highly prized that, by the express
order of the prince of that country " it is forbid to fish
them until a sufficient quantity hath been provided
for the Emperor's table.' 'f

In the Bay of Concepcion are several species of
shell-fish highly esteemed, and Ulloa especially men-
tions some Venuses and a number of razor-shells.
The Chinese eat the razor-fishes, and they may be seen

* * British Conchology,' vol. iii. p. 13.

f ' Glimpses of Ocean Life,' by Johp Harper, F.R.S.

SOLENID.E. — RAZOR-SHELL. ] 7

ia the market at Tche-fou. The small kinds they call
Tchln-ga, and the larger species Chu-en-na.*

At Naples it is considered qnite a recherche morseb
too expensive for the common people, a dishful selling
at six carlines, which is equal to two shillings of our
English money.

The G-erman name for this shell is Scheidenmuschel
or Messerschalenmuschel, and the French call it Manche
de couteau and coutoye. In Spain it has several names
by which it is known, viz., Miiergos, Muerganos, Mor-
gueras, Maneg de ganivet, Longeirones, Caravelas, and
at Mahon, Manecs de quinivet.f The Sicilian names
for it are Cannulicchiu stortu and Couca niura, and
in the Adriatic Solen siliqua is called Capa tabar-
china.

Razor -fishes may be cooked in the following
manner : —

Razor-fish Soup. — Take 2 lbs. of razor- fish, and, after
they have been well washed, put them into a saucepan,
and keep them on a slow fire till they open, then take
out the fish from the shells. Chop up some parsley
very fine, and put it, with a tablespoonful of oil or an
ounce of butter, into a saucepan, and fry until it
becomes brown. To this add a pint of water, or a pint
and a half of milk, and, when boiling, place in your
fish, with a little salt and pepper, and let it boil again
for half an hour. Add toasted bread before it is served
up, or boil some vermicelli with it, of course adding
more water.

To cook Razor-fish. — Boil them for ten minutes or so,

* ' Notice sur la Malacologie du Littoral de l'Empire Chinois,' par
Odon Desbeaux, ' Journal de Conch.' tome xi. 1863.

f M. de la P. Graells, ' Exploracion' cientilica de las costas del Fenol.'

C

18 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

then take them out of their shells, and fry them with
butter or lard. Add a little salt and pepper.

Another way to cook Solens. — Stew them in milk till
they are tender, add pepper and salt ; butter is a great
addition.

The razor-fish is much prized on the Scotch coast,
where it is merely boiled, and eaten with salt and
pepper. Poli says that it is good either raw, or fried
with breadcrumbs, pepper, oil, and lemon -juice.

Fam. TELLINDLE.
PSAMMOBIA.

Psammobia Vespertina, Chemnitz. The Setting Sun.
— Shell of an oblong oval shape, equivalve, rather
flattened, opaque, colour whitish, shading to a reddish
yellow at the beaks, with radiating rays of carmine
and purplish pink ; epidermis of an olivaceous brown ;
ligament external, prominent, and of a horn-colour;
beaks small ; teeth, two in each valve ; in the left
valve, one tooth bifid.

The TellinidcB are but rarely used for food in this
country, though several species are used for that pur-
pose abroad. With us the Psammobia vespertina is
stated by Dr. J. G-. Jeffreys* to be eaten by the
peasantry at Kenmare, and heaps of their shells may
be seen round the huts.

Mr. Damon informed me that this pretty shell is
dredged duriug the summer months in Bantry Bay,
all the boats being then engaged in dredging sand and

* • British Conchology,' vol. ii p. 400.

TELLINID.E. FSAMMOBIA. 19

its contents, for the farmers, who use it as manure ;
and that out of the heaps of sand, &c, formed on the
quay, the Psammobia and other shells are collected.
It is only a locally abundant species ; but is generally
diffused. Large richly-coloured specimens are found
in Birterbury Bay, Connemara ; and Cornwall, Devon,
Dorset, Northumberland, Pembrokeshire, Firth of
Forth, and the Channel Isles, are a few of the localities
given by Dr. Jeffreys.

Athenaeus* states that Tellinidse were very common
at Canopus, and abound when the Nile begins to rise,
and that the thinnest of these were the royal ones,
which were digestible and light. For fish-sauces, both
the Psammobia and the Donax, or Wedge-shell (which
belongs to the Tellinidge also), might be substituted
instead of cockles ; and, indeed, a species of the latter,
which with us is very rare, viz., Donax trunculus, is
sold in the markets at Naples, and is said by Poli to
be one of the best kinds of shellfish, both for making
sauce and for seasoning small rolls of bread. I have
often watched the women at Viareggio fishing for the
Donax and the Mactridae. They dress themselves in
their husbands' or brothers' old garments, and stand in
the water to the waist. They use a kind of net made of
a piece of thin light wood, oval-shaped at one end and
straight at the other. This is surrounded on the upper
side by a small frame-work about six to eight inches
deep, except at the straight end, and covered with sail-
cloth or some such material, to keep in the sand and
shells. To this is attached a wooden handle about four
to five feet in length. They hold the net before them in

• ' Atben. Deipn.' vol. i. bk. iii. c. 40.

c 2

20 EDIBLE B1UTISH MOLLUSCA.

almost an upright position, the straight end towards
thein, and scrape the sand into it. When sufficiently
full, it is looked over, and the shells picked out and
thrown into a basket which they carry slung on their
backs. It is apparently very hard work, and the poor
women complained much of the cold, standing and
working so long in the water before they could
get a basketful.

Dr. Jeffreys says, that according to Philippi Donax
trunculus is still esteemed a delicacy in the south of
Italy, and in Sicily it is called Arceddu giarnusu* and
Cozzola. The Spaniards know it by the names of
Cliirlas, Tallerinas, and Navallas, and in Minorca it is
called Xarletas.

It is much eaten in Spain, and at Malaga is very
common, and is cooked with rice.

On the French Coast the Donax is very abundant,
and is eaten by the poor people, but always cooked.
In German it is called Stiimpfmuschel. In the islands
of Guadeloupe and Martinique women also collect a
species of Donax for food, viz., Donax denticulata.f

Potage aux Chobettes (name given to Donax denti-
culata), Martinique recipe. — Wash the shells in several
waters to completely free them from the sand. Boil
them ten to twelve minutes in the quantity of water
required for the soup. Pass the liquid through a fine
sieve, and then throw into it a piece of the best butter,
with some pepper, salt, and spices ; and add rice
or bread. The fish can be served apart, with butter
or oil, and chopped herbs ; but they form so small a

* 'The Mediterranean,' by Roar-Admiral W. Henry Smyth.
f ' Utilite' de certains Moilusques Marins vivants but les cotes de la
Guadeloupe et de la Martinique/ par M. Beau, 'Journal de Conch.'

TELLINID.E. PSAMMOBIA. 21

dish after having been boiled, that it requires a con-
siderable quantity to satisfy the appetites of three or
four persons. Sometimes the fish is pounded and
made into a puree to mix with the soup ; but it makes
it more substantial and heavier of digestion.

Spanish Method of making Fish Sauce. — Scald the
fish in boiling water, sufficiently to make the shells
open ; but do not let them be heated more than neces-
sary. Clean them nicely, and then mix them with a
white sauce. To give a pleasant flavour, add a little
lemon-juice or vinegar.

Spanish way of Cooking all kinds of Shellfish. —
Chop up a good quantity of garlic, onions, parsley,
and red peppers (which last must be prepared by
throwing them into boiling water, and rubbing off the
skins with a dry cloth); scald the fish, and pick them
out of their shells, then put all together in an olla (or
round earthen pot), with plenty of oil ; fry them till a
deep yellow. They may either be served thus, or when
finished add some broth, boil it up, and serve it like a
thick soup.

The genuine Cadiz lovers of shellfish, however,
consider that scalding the fish spoils it ; they there-
fore prefer the raw fish being put at once into the oil
and vegetables, and the dish is then sent to table with
the shells in it. " Psammobia vespertina " has the
following names in Spain, Navallinas and Gnitzu-
petit.

2'2 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Fam. MACTRHLE.
MACTRA.— TROUGH-SHELL.

Mactra Solida, Linnaeus. Trough- shell. — Shell
thick, opaque, of a yellowish-white colour, nearly equal-
valved, covered at the sides with a brownish or drab-
coloured epidermis ; nearly triangular in form, ligament
short and internal ; beaks small ; a V-shaped cardinal
tooth in one valve, with a long lateral tooth on each
side, and fitting in the opposite valve in jo deep grooves,
with tooth-like edges.

Of the Mactrida3, both Mactra solida and Mactra
stultorum are sometimes eaten in England, but they are
not considered very good, and are full of sand ; though
the former is eaten in Devonshire ; and Mr. Dennis
(as quoted by Dr. Jeffreys, in his 'British Conchology')
says that the people of Newhaven, near Brighton, eat
the Mactra stultorum also. It appears that in 1861
the steam dredging-machines were at work at the
mouth of the harbour, and that they turned up Mactra
stultorum in great numbers, so that the beach at high-
water mark was covered by them.* They live buried
in the sand not very far from low- water mark and at
no great depth from the surface. In Holland the
shells of Mactra stultorum are used for making roads
and foot-paths ; they are also burnt for lime, and the
fish is eaten there. According to Poli, it is known in
Italy by the name of Mezzana, at Naples Gongola, and
in the Adriatic Bibaron color ito.f It is eaten at
Yiareggio, with Mactra lactea, and Mactra corallina

* ' British Conchology/ vol. ii. p. 424.

f ' The Fisheries of the Adriatic/ by George L. Faber.

MACTRIDiE. TROUGH-SHELL. 23

In Spain the names for it are Chirlas, Pechinas
llisas, and Escicpinas bestias, and for Mactra solida,
Cascaras y chirlas. In German, Mactridce are called
Trogmuscheln. Our rare Mactra glauca or helvacea,
which is a much larger shell than either of the other
kinds above-mentioned, and is at least three inches
long by four broad, with longitudinal rays of a pale
fawn, or a drab colour, resembling Mactra stultorum,
is sold in the market at Brest; and at Granville is
known by the name of Schias. It is also found at
Naples, and is called Fava, by the Neapolitans. Poll
speaks with evident satisfaction of its sweet and ex-
cellent flavour. It is eaten in Spain, where it is known
by the name of Cascaras. It is taken in the Channel
Islands, but we seldom find more than single valves
upon our coast, though I have seen a perfect pair in
the collection of a friend, which had been found on
the Hayle Sands, Cornwall. Mr. King, of 190, Port-
land Road, sent me a magnificent specimen alive,
some years since, which enabled me to examine the
fish, and admire the beautiful colouring of its two
short thick tubes, of a pale yellow shading to a rich
orange ; round the orifices were dark streaks of
crimson, the cirri of the same colour as the tubes.
The animal, however, varies much in colour; and
another live specimen I received afterwards, was not
so bright.

Mactra subtruncata, or the lady-cockle, as it is called
at Belfast, is said by Mr. Alder to be gathered at
Lamlash Bay, and used as food for pigs, and in some
parts it is used as bait by fishermen.

One other species of Mactra may be mentioned as
edible, as it is eaten in the Channel Islands, and also

24 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

in Spain (where it is known by the following names,
Arolas, Orolas, and Navallon), viz., Lutraria elliptica,
very unlike the Madridce in appearance, and not
tempting to look at. It is a broad flattish shell, about
live inches long, and three in height, with a long tube,
something resembling Mya arenaria. It lives in
muddy estuaries, and at the mouths of rivers, buried
to the depth of one and a half to two feet ; and I have
had some fine specimens from the mouth of the Towy,
in Carmarthenshire.

Mr. Dennis * says the Lutrarice are called Clumps at
Herm, and I am told by Mr. Morton, that the fisher-
men in Jersey know them by the name of Horse-shoes.
In Devonshire they are called Glams. In cooking
them, they are first boiled, then taken out of their
shells and fried.

Lutraria oblong a, whicli is a common species in
some of the little muddy estuaries near Croisic and
Piriac, on the coast of the Loire Inferieure, is said by
M, Cailliaud to be very generally eaten, but it is a
rare species with us, though it has been taken on the
Devon, Cornwall, and Dorset coasts. At Mahon the
name for it is Guitzii ; Quiquirig alias, and Cobras at
Santander, and Ropamaceiras at Vigo.f

Mr. J. K. Lord states that in British Columbia and
Vancouver's Island the large Lutraria Maxima, called
the great clam, or otter-shell, is one of the staple
articles of winter food on which the Indian tribes who
inhabit the North- West Coast of America in a great
measure depend. The squaws fish for them, as it is

* ' British Conchology,' vol. ii. p. 430.

f ' Molluscos Marinos de Espafia, Portugal y las Baleares,' por
J. G. Hidalgo.

VENEltlM. — PULLET. 25

derogatory to the dignity of a man to dig clams.
They use a bent stick for the purpose, about four feet
long, and they cook them by placing the shells on red-
hot pebbles from the camp fire till the shells open.
To preserve them for winter use, a long wooden needle,
with an eye at the end, is threaded with cord made
from native hemp, and on this the clams are strung
like dried apples, and thoroughly smoked in the in-
terior of the lodge.*

Mactridce are also found in great quantities buried
in the sandbanks on the Coast of Chili.

To dress Mactridce. — Boil them, and then eat them
with pepper, salt, and vinegar.

Fah. VENERIDiE.
TAPES.-- PULLET.

Tapes Pullastra, Linnseus. Pullet or Gully och. —
Shell oblong, opaque; valves inequilateral, covered
with concentric strias, which become coarser and more
wavy towards the extremities, and are crossed by
longitudinal striae ; ligament external, long, horn-
colour. Three teeth in each valve, erect, very narrow.

Though so common a species, the Tapes is not so
generally eaten in England as abroad, though both
this and Tapes decussata are eaten in Devonshire,
Hampshire, and Sussex. They both inhabit muddy
sand or gravel, and occasionally we find specimens of
the former in holes which have been made by the
Pholas, and deserted ; and I have taken them out of

* ' The Naturalist in British Columbia,' by John Keast Lord.

26 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

holes in the rocks, both at Tenby and Eastbourne, but
rarely without some depression or distortion of the
valves. But the Tapes decussata is more local than
the Tapes pullastra. I had never found it in pro-
fusion till the spring of 1862, when, on visiting the
sands near the mouth of the Exe, I noticed that at
low-water mark the ground was covered with speci-
mens of it; and also with Scrobicularia piper ata, which
is called by the Exmouth fishermen the " mud-hen •"
but this latter is not used for food in this country, as
it has a hot biting taste.* It is said to be eaten at
Spezia, and may be seen in the markets of Trieste and
Venice; and it is used for making soup. It is known by
the name of "caparozzolo."f Tapes decussata is a larger
and more rugged shell than Tapes pidlastra, though
much resembling it, but it is not so convex, and differs
from it in colour, being of a dirty white, with the
bands, rays, or markings of a drab colour, sometimes
of a purplish-tinge ; while Tapes pullastra is of a more
yellowish -white, with zigzag markings of a rufous-
brown, sometimes extending all over the shell, and at
others only towards the extremities.

In the Northern Isles, the pullet or cullyock, is only
used for bait.

Tapes decussata is called in some parts of England
" purr," and in Hampshire " butter-fish." At Stub-
bington, near Tichfield, quantities are collected, and
sold in the neighbourhood, at 5d. per quart, where
they are considered richer and better than cockles.
They are found at low tide not far from high-water
mark, and their locality is easily detected by two holes

* ' British Conchology,' vol. ii. p. 446.

f ' The Fisheries of the Adriatic,' by G. L. Faber.

VENERID^E. PULLET. 27

in the sand or gravel (unlike the cockle, which makes
but one), about an inch or so apart. They are easily-
dug up by means of an old knife. On warm, still days
they appear to rise more readily to the surface ; but
if cold or windy they burrow about two to three inches
deep in the gravelly sand. Butter-fish are considered
very wholesome and I was assured by the cockle
gatherers that they might be eaten with impunity at all
times of the year, and never disagreed with people as
the mussels and cockles occasionally do. At Falmouth,
also, they are considered far richer and sweeter than
cockles, and are sold in the market at 3d. per
hundred.

M. Gay says, that at Toulon it is known by the
name of Clouvisso, and is a favourite dish in Continental
seaports.* Clovisse is another name for it, and at
Bordeaux it sells in the market from twenty to thirty
centimes per hundred, and both it and Tapes pullastra
are called Palourde by the French, and also le Lunot.
At Puerto de Santa Maria, in Spain, it is very highly
prized, and the Spaniards say "es buena" in speaking
of it ; and at Vigo thousands are gathered at every
tide. The following names are given in Spanish to all
kinds of Tapes, viz. Almeixas, Almeija, Petchinas,
Almejas, and Escupina lliza. At Naples it is called
Vongola verace.

Other species of Tapes are eaten abroad, besides
those already mentioned ; and we may add another to
our edible mollusks, viz. Tapes virginea, which is dis-
tributed all round our coasts. It varies very much in
colour, and you may gather a dozen or more specimens
without finding two that resemble each other. The

* ' British Conchology,' vol. ii. p. 361.

28 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

brightest I ever found was near Dawlish; it was
mauve colour, with white streaks. The largest are
dredged at Tenby.

In Ireland, at Youghal, in Birterbury Bay, in Con-
nemara, and in Bantry Bay, Tapes av,rea is said to
be eaten, but it is not a common species, though
locally abundant; and in the spring numbers are
found in the Scilly Isles. At Falmouth, it is brought
to market with Tapes decussata from Helford, and both
kinds are called " hens."

The Spaniards prize the Tapes highly, as I pre-
viously observed. At Cadiz, shellfish are considered
good if people drink too much wine, and consequently
they are often introduced at festas; and no food is
considered by the Spaniards so nourishing as shellfish
for those who work hard.

It is a rule at Spanish tables to hand round white
wine with shellfish, though with other things they
use any wine indiscriminately, and the wisdom of this
custom is proved by experience. Indeed serious
illnesses are often caused by taking port wine with
oysters, lobsters, &c. ; the astringent qualities of port,
having the effect of hardening the shellfish, and some-
times producing violent indigestion. In Paris not so
very long ago, we might have read amongst the many
varied signs, the following, " le vin blanc, hon pour les
huitres." The following recipes for cooking the Tapes
are from Cadiz.

Tapes Soup — Sopa de Almejas. — Wash the shells and
put them into a saucepan with a little water, then put
them on the fire for a few minutes to open them. Pick
the fish out and put them into a clean saucepan, with
an onion chopped very small, salt, pepper, and butter.

VENERID^E. — PULLET. 29

Fry till they are of a good brown colour, then add
water or broth, and boil till a strong soup is made.
If preferred, fresh fish may be added when serving it.

Tapes decussata. — Ahnejas blancas. — Wash them well,
dry them, and place them in a saucepan or casserole
in the oven, which must not be hot enough to burn
them ; when open, take them out of their shells, and
place them on a very slow fire, with butter, parsley,
and a little chopped onion ; when tender, add a little
flour, pepper and half a glass of white wine. As soon
as they are ready to serve, add the yolk of an egg,
well beaten, and the juice of a lemon.

Tapes, another way —Ahnejas cocidas. — Wash and
open them as above, add butter and some chopped
parsley, serve in their own liquor, with the juice of a
lemon squeezed into it.

Tapes Rag oid — Almejas guisa das. — After having well
washed the shells, put them into an earthen vessel,
with a piece of butter ; when open, pass the liquor
that runs from them through a sieve, and take the fish
out of the shells. Place the fish in the liquor, and add
more butter, mixed with chopped parsley, pepper, and
salt ; moisten them with broth, white wine, or water ;
let them boil some minutes, and, when ready to serve,
add an egg well beaten, some lemon-juice or vinegar.

Tapes an naturel — Almejas al naturel — Prepare them
as mentioned in the recipe above, then put the fish in
a saucepan with their own liquor ; add whole pepper-
corns and cook them over a very slow fire, shaking them
about from time to time ; then add lemon-juice and
shake them again over the fire. Salt to your taste,
and serve without any other sauce.

Tapes Sauce — JSalsa de Almejas. — Scald the fish ir»

30 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

boiling water to open their shells, but do not let them
be heated more than necessary, clean them nicely, and
mix them with a white sauce, acidulated with lemon-
juice or vinegar ; use with boiled or fried fish.

Potage of Oysters and Tapes, — Menestra de Ostras y
Almejas. — Wash the shells and put them in hot water
to open them. Take out the fish, and put them in a
saucepan on the fire with a little water ; chop two
onions small and fry them in butter ; while stirring
them about dredge in slowly a little flour; add the
oysters and Tapes, and the water in which they were
boiled, stir the whole for a few minutes over the fire,
then add the yolk of an egg well beaten up. Fry
slices of bread in butter, and place them at the
bottom of the dish, pouring the potage over them ;
then serve.

Hampshire Method of Cooking Tapes. — Wash the
shells, then boil them for a few minutes, till the water
is just on the eve of boiling over. If boiled with
cockles, the " butterfish " must be placed in the sauce-
pan a few seconds before the cockles. They are also
very good eaten raw, like oysters.

Venus Verrucosa Linnaeus. Warty Venus. — Shell
opaque, very solid, inequilateral, covered with concen-
tric ridges which bend backwards, and towards the
sides or ends become coarser, forming knots or tuber-
cles. These ridges are divided by fine ribs or furrows,
which radiate from the beaks, giving them a scalloped
appearance. Umbones prominent, the beaks small
and sharp, the lunule distinct and heart-shaped.
Ligament rather long and narrow. Three teeth in
each valve; the margins crenulated inside. Colour,
pale yellowish-brown.

VENERID^. — PULLET. 31

This coarse, rough-looking shell is found on many
parts of the coast of the English Channel, also in the
Channel Islands, and in Ireland.

Mr. Hanley* states, that at Herm, near Guernsey,
it is collected as an article of food from the small pools
between the rocks at low water ; and Dr. J effreys says
that it is habitually eaten in County Clare, and that
Weinkauff mentions its being sold in the market at
Algiers.

It is a common species on the south coast of Ireland,
and Mr. Damon, of Weymouth, on visiting Henmare,
found that owing to the great consumption of Venus
verrucosa for food, the species was nearly exhausted.
It is dug out of a sandbank at low spring tides, at
Bantry. M. Charles Bretagne, Member of the Societe
Imperiale d'Acclimatation, wished to try and pro-
pagate it on the coasts of France, from Toulon to
Menton, and the Due de Monaco conceded the right
to establish banks for the rearing of oysters and la
Praire, as this Venus is called in France.f The stock
of the latter would have to be brought from Mahon,
as it is not found in any quantity on the coast of
Provence. Dr. Paul Fischer observes that it ought to
thrive well at Arcachon if cultivated, as it is in-
digenous there.

It has several names by which it is known in Spain ;
viz., Maclo cuadrado, Carneros, Gurrianos y Verigiletos
Gredas, Escwpinas grabadas, and at Naples, Taratufolo
and Camadid, and in Sicily, Vongulo.

The beautiful Venus Ckione, or Cytherea Chione

* Forbes and Hanley, ( British Mollusca/ vol. i. p. 404.
t ' Notes sur la Praire,' par M. Charles Bretagne, ' Journal de Con-
chyliologie/ tome xii. 1864.

32 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

may also be included in our list of " edible mollusea,"
though it is not sufficiently abuudant to forui any
more than a rare and dainty dish with us ; while in
the Mediterranean, it is a common species ; and ac-
cording to Mr. Faber,* it is also abundant in the
lasroons of Venice, and on the sand-banks of Grado on
the Austrio-ltalian coast, and the shells are exported
for miniature painting.

It is however, found at Hayle, Cornwall, and may
be gathered at the lowest spring tides. They burrow
in the sand, and it requires some skill and quickness
to catch them, as they retire so rapidly. The fisher-
men called them " cocks " and told me they usually
cooked them by boiling, but that they did not often
eat them. I have taken them near the mouth of the
river Helford, where they appear to be tolerably abun-
dant; and in that neighbourhood the local name given
to this species is the Gram.

I was so fortunate as to procure a dozen beautiful
specimens from Plymouth, besides those from the
Helford river ; the largest measuring 2J inches in
leno-th and 3| in breadth. The colour is a pinkish-
brown, with rays of a darker shade ; the epidermis is
of a pale horn-colour, and transparent, showing the
rays of the shell through, and is very glossy. The
shell itself is solid and opaque. Specimens sent to
me from the Mediterranean are the same as those
found on our coasts, both as to size and colouring ;
but this is not the case with some of our other
bivalves, — the Isocardia Cor, for instance, attaining a
larger size with us, than it does in the south of
Europe.

* ' The Fisheries of the Adiiatic,' by George L. Faber.

VENERIDJS. PULLET. 83

Messrs. Forbes and Hanley give the following
localities for Gytherea chione, viz., Plymouth and Teign-
tnouth, and Dr. Jeffreys mentions Mount's Bay, and
other parts of the coast of Cornwall.

The Neapolitans call it Fasolara, and the Taren tines,
Gamadia di lima, while in Spain it is called Sauerinas,
Conchas, and Mariposas.*

Poli, in his magnificent work, the ' Testacea utri-
usque Siciliee ' (to which more modern writers are so
deeply indebted for their anatomical description of
molluscous animals), mentioning this fish, under the
names of Venus chione and Callista coccinea, says it is
most excellent, and that though cooked in various
ways (common to different shellfish), it is most de-
licious when simply cooked in oil, or butter, with
breadcrumbs, chopped parsley, and pepper and salt.

To cook Venus verrucosa. — Boil them, after first
washing the shells well to free them from sand and
mud, then fry them for a few minutes in a frying-pan,
with a little butter or lard, adding pepper and salt
according to taste. Fry some parsley quite crisp, and
serve round the dish.

Venus Gallina may be mentioned as an edible species
also, and is very common everywhere on our coasts,
where there is sand, but although it is not used as
food with us, it is much eaten in some parts of Italy
by the poorer classes ; and the name for it at Venice
is Bibarazza. In Spain, too, it is eaten, and at Mahoii
is called Escwpina Maltesa.

Before leaving the Venus tribe of shells, I must call
attention to an American species, which is now

* ' Moluscos Marinos de Espafia, Portugal y las Baleares,' por
J. G. Hidalgo.

D

34 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

becoming an object of interest to the shellfish growers
in this country, viz., Venus mercenaria. The experi-
ment to acclimatize it on the French coast has already
been tried by M. de Broca, M. Coste, and the Count de
Ferussac. Breeding-beds were prepared on the coast
at Arcachon and Saint-Yaast-la-Hogue, and in 18GI
the steward of the ' Arago ' steamer brought over
about 200 hard clams, and also some American oysters,
which were deposited in these beds under the super-
intendence of M. Coste.* In 1863 another supply of
live clams was brought over, but Dr. Paul Fischer
stated, in 1865, that though the mollusks seemed per-
fectly healthy, they did not appear to have spawned,
as no young specimens could be found. Mr. F. G.
Moore, Curator of the Liverpool Museum, describes
(in a paper given to Professor Brown Goode, and
quoted at one of the Conferences held at the Inter-
national Fisheries Exhibition,) the successful introduc-
tion of the hard clam, or quahog, into the waters of
St. George's Channel.

Venus mercenaria is very largely consumed in
America. The New York supply comes chiefly from
Long Island. The prices for them are as follows :
20 cents per dozen, and 75 cents to 1 dollar per 100.
Like oysters, they bear long journeys well, and can be
preserved alive for some time by being kept wet and
cool. The shell is very thick, covered with a drab-
coloured epidermis, and much resembles, in form, our
Cyprlna islandica, but it is more triangular. Inside,
the valves at one end are of a rich purple colour, the
portion used for making the ' Wampum, as we shall
read further on.

* ' Utilization of Minute Life/ by Dr. T. L. Phipsou.

VEXE1UDJ2. — PULLET. ,'j j

The following recipes for cooking clams, are from
America, and will no doubt be acceptable ; especially
if the experiment of acclimatizing these shellfish on
our shores should prove successful.

Clam Soup. — Take 50 clams, 1 quart of milk, 1 pint
of water, 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. Drain off the
liquor from the clams, and put it over the fire with a
dozen whole peppers, a few bits of cayenne pods, half
a dozen blades of mace, and salt to taste. Let it boil
for ten minutes, then put in the clams and boil half an
hour quite fast, keeping the pot closely covered. If
you dislike to see the whole spices in the tureen, strain
them out before the clams are added. At the end of
the half-hour, add the milk, whichh as been heated to
scalding, not boiling, in another vessel. Boil up again,
taking care the soup does not burn, and put in the
butter. Then serve without delay. If you desire a
thicker soup stir a heaping tablespoonful of rice-flour
into a little cold milk, and put in with the quart of
hot.*

Hard Clam Soup. — Take 50 large or 100 small sand
clams, and their liquor, from the shells ; strain the
liquor; add to it a quart of milk and water each; if
the clams are large, cut each in two and put them into
it ; set them over a moderate fire until the clams are
tender (about one hour); skim it clear; put to it half
a pound of butter crackers rolled fine ; cover the pot
for ten minutes, then add a quarter of a pound of
sweet butter, and serve hot.f

To boil Hard Clams. — Wash the shells until they are
perfectly clean, then put them into a kettle, with the

* ' Common Sense in the Household,' by Marion Harland.
f Mrs. Crowen's ' American Lady's Cookery Book.'

D 2 '

36 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

edges downwards; add a pint of water, cover the pot
and set it over a brisk fire ; when the shells open wide
they are cooked. Half an hour is generally enough
for them; if a strong taste to the juice is not liked,
put more than a pint of water to them When done,
take the clams from the shells and place them in a
deep dish; add to them some of the juice, a good bit
of butter, and some pepper; or toast some thin slices
of bread, butter them and cut them small, and put
them in the dish, before putting in the clams and
juice.*

Fried Hard- Shell Clams. — Get the large sand clams,
wash them in their own liquor ; dip them in wheat
flour or rolled crackers as may be preferred, and fry
in hot lard or beef dripping, without salt ; or dip each
one in batter. f

Omlet of Hard- Skull Clams. — Make a batter of two
well-beaten eggs, to a pint of milk and a gill of the
liquor from the clams, with a pint bowl of wheat flour ;
beat it until it is smooth and perfectly free from
lumps ; then stir into it fifty small sand clams, or
twenty-five large ones, chopped small ; have a frying-
pan, put into it a teacup of lard or bsef fat; make it
boiling hot, put in the batter half an inch deep, and
set the pan over a gentle heat until one side is a fine
brown ; pass a knife-blade round the edges and under
it occasionally to loosen it from the pan; then turn the
other side. When both are done, turn it into a dish.
This quantity of batter will make several omlets. J

Clam, Pot Pie. — Put two pounds of wheat flour into
a bowl ; make a hollow in the centre of it ; put into it
a teaspoonful of salt, and a pint of buttermilk or sour

* Mrs. Crowen. t Ibid. % Ibid.

VENERIDJi. — PITLLET. 37

milk; measure a small teaspoonful of dry saleratus
(volatile salts), mix it with a little hot water; when
all is dissolved, and a little cooled, add to it the sour
milk or buttermilk, then proceed to make it into a soft
dough with as much cold water as may be necessary ;
dip your hands in dry flour to prevent the dough from
sticking to them. Rub over the sides of an iron dinner-
pot with a bit of butter, and line the sides only with
the paste made in the hands, not more than half an
inch thick, press it closely against the pot, then put in
fifty large clams, a quarter of a pound of sweet butter
cut small, a small teaspoonful of ground pepper
strewed over, and half a nutmeg, grated, if liked;
dredge wheat flour over, until it looks white ; put of
clam juice and water sufficient to nearly reach the top
of the paste ; lay skewers across, roll out a crust for
the top, and whatever paste remains, cut into small
squares, and drop iu before putting on the crust ;
cut a slit in the centre, cover the pot close and set it
over a gentle fire for one hour ; then take it up and
serve as soon as done. The crust becomes heavy by
standing. This is a dish much liked by those who are
fond of clams. The paste directed in this recipe is
delicate and far more healthful than any other.*

Pickled Clams. — Boil them from the shells, and take
them out with a skimmer and put them into a basin;
take of their own liquor half enough to cover over
them, and the same quantity of strong vinegar. Whole
pepper, alspice and mace, each a teaspoonful ; make
this hot and then pour it over the clams. After
twenty -four hours they are fit for eating, and will keep
good for a long time.

* Mrs. Crowen.

38 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLI/USCA.

Clam Fritters. — One and a half pints of milk; one
and a quarter pounds of flour; four eggs, whites and
yolks beaten separately; whites stirred in lightly at
the last ; the clams must be chopped small; mix well,
aud drop with a spoon into hot lard, and fry brown.*

Scalloped Clams. — Chop the clams fine, and season
with pepper and salt. Cayenne pepper is thought to
give a finer flavour than black or white, but to some
palates it is insufferable. Mix in another dish, some
powdered cracker, moistened first with warm milk,
then with the clam liquor, a beaten egg or two, and
some melted butter. Stir in with this the chopped
clams. Wash as many clam-shells as the mixture will
fill, wipe and butter them; fill, heaping up and smooth-
ing over with a silver knife or teaspoon, range in rows
in your baking-pan, and cook until nicely browned.
Or, if you do not care to be troubled with the shells,
bake in patty-pans, sending to table hot in the tins, as
you would in the scallop-shells.f

Clam Chowder. — Fry five or six slices of fat pork
crisp, and chop to pieces. Sprinkle some of these in
the bottom of a pot; lay upon them a stratum of
clams ; sprinkle with cayenne or black pepper and
salt, and scatter bits of butter profusely over all ; next,
have a layer of chopped onions, then one of small
crackers, split and moistened with warm milk. On
these pour a little of the fat left in the pan after the
pork is fried, and then comes a new round of pork,
clams, onions, &c. Proceed in this order until the pot
is nearly full, then cover with water, and stew slowly

• ' Every Day's Need.'

f 'Common Sense in the Household,' by Marion Harlaud.

CYPRINID.E. OXHORN-COCKLE. 39

— the pot closely covered — for three-quarters of an
hoar. Drain off all the liquor that will flow freely,
and, when you have turned the chowder into the
tureen, return the gravy to the pot. Thicken with
flour, or, better still, pounded crackers ; add a glass
of wine, some catsup and spiced sauce; boil up, and
pour over the contents of the tureen. Send around
walnut or butternut pickles.*

At Hong Kong there is a large consumption of
Cytherea petechialis ; and Cytherea arabica is said by
Dr. Leon Vaillant to be eaten by the Arabs, and it is
found in the Bay of Suez.f

Fam. CYPRINnLE.
ISOCARDIA.—OXH.OBH-GOCKLK

Isocardia Cor, Linnaeus. Heart-Shell or Oxhom-
Cockle. — Shell very strong, nearly spherical, heart-
shaped, concentrically striated, equivalve, smooth, with
a dark reddish-brown epidermis ; beaks very promi-
nent and curled; two primary teeth in the right valve,
lying parallel to each other; in the left valve the
outer tooth is indented and is large, the other, thin
and laminar. The lateral tooth strong and elongated,
situated under the ligament, which is external.

This magnificent mollusk is very partially distri-
buted, though plentiful in some places. Specimens
have been sent to me from Dublin Bay, where, I grieve

* 'Common Sense in the Household,' by Marion Harland.
+ ' Recherches sur la Faune Malacologique de la baie de Suez.'
' Journal de Couch.' tome xiii. 1865.

40 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

to say, they are getting very scarce, and also from
Brixham, where they are highly prized by the fisher-
men. They do not, however, often bring them on
shore, though they bring them up in the dredges,
unless they wish to make a present of a dish to some
friend, or know where they can dispose of them.
They call them " Torbay-noses," and they are also
known by the names of " Oxhorn- cockles," and
" Heart-shells ;" in France, Coeur de boeuf; in Hol-
land, Zots-kappen, or fool's cap ; at Naples, Cocciola
zigga ; and at Venice, Bibaronde mare, and Ghama a
cuore. Dr. J. G. Jeffreys, quoting an interesting
account of Isocardia cor, by the Rev. James Bulwer
(who kept a specimen in a vessel of sea-water, and
was therefore able to study the habits of the animal),
given in the ' Zoological Journal/ states, " that the
animal appears insensible both to sound and light, as
the presence or absence of either did not interrupt its
movements ; but its sense of feeling appeared to be
very delicate ; minute substances being dropped into
the orifice of the mantle instantly excited the animal,
and a column of water strongly directed, expelled
them from the shell. With so much strength was the
water in some instances ejected that it rose above the
surface of three inches of superincumbent fluid ....
Locomotion very confined ; it is capable, with the
assistance of its foot, which it uses in the same manner
(but in a much more limited degree) as the Cardiacea,
of fixing itself firmly in the sand, generally choosing
to have the umbones covered by it, and the orifices of
the tubes of the mantle nearly perpendicular.* Rest-
ing in this position on the margin of a sand-bank of

* ■ British Conchology/ vol. ii. pp. 300, 801.

CARDIAD.E. — COCKLE. 41

which the surrounding soil is mud, at too great a
depth to be disturbed by storms, the Isocardia of our
Irish Sea patiently collects its food from the sur-
rounding element, assisted in its choice by the current
it is capable of creating by the alternate opening and
closing of its valves."

The Mediterranean species of this bivalve are smaller
than those found on our coasts, and there are no less
than five or six kinds known in the European and
Indian seas.*

Epimarchus, in his play of the ' Marriage of Hebe/
mentions shellfish of all kinds, and says, —

"And bring too the black
Cockle, which keeps the cockle-hunter on the stretch. "+

This may possibly refer to the oxhorn-cockle.

The wife of a coastguardsman, who had lived many
years at Brixham, and had often luxuriated in a dish
of these delicious shellfish, gave me the following
recipe for cooking them : —

To dress Torbay noses. — Wash the shells well, then
boil them till they open — about ten minutes or so ;
take the fish out of the shells and put them into a fry-
ing-pan with some butter, a little salt and pepper,
and fry till they are of a good brown colour; then
serve.

Fam. CARDIAD.E.
CARDIUM.— COCKLE.

Caedium Edule, Linnasus. Common Cockle. — Shell

* ' Manuel de Conchyliologie, 5 par Dr. T. C. Chenu.
f Athenseus, ' Deip.' Eohn's Class. Lib. iii. p. 112.

42 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

eqnivalve, subcordate, with twenty-four or more ribs
radiating from the beaks, which are bent inwards ;
umbones prominent ; the internal margins of the
valves fluted or indented. Ligament external, strong,
and of a dark horn-colour. Four teeth in each valve ;
the two primary teeth close together, the lateral teeth
remote. Colour yellowish-white.

The common Cockle (the Ruocane or Bruvawe of the
Irish ; la Bucarde sourdon, Rigardot, or Coque of the
French, the Berdigones, Berberichos, Croques, Cameiros,
Romeas. and Escwpinas de gallet, of the Spaniards) is
found all round our coasts, burying itself in sand, or
sandy mud, in the neighbourhood of estuaries ; and at
low tides numbers of people may be seen busily en-
gaged filling their baskets, as it is everywhere much
sought after for food ; and during times of scarcity in
some of the northern islands of Scotland, the inhabi-
tants might have perished with hunger, if it had not
been for this useful little shellfish. The quantity of
shellfish, particularly of cockles, on the shores of most
parts of the Long Island (Western Isles) is almost
inconceivable. On the sands of Barra alone, scores of
horse-loads may be taken at a single tide. Cockles
are considered by the people very nutritious, especially
when boiled with milk.* It is astonishing how quickly
an expert cockle-gatherer will fill his basket; and
sometimes they make use of a piece of bent iron, or half
an old hoop, to scrape the shells out of the sands.
At Starcross, they have small " cockle-gardens/'
where the shellfish are kept, and the flavour of these
cockles is considered superior to those which are

* * Visits to the Seacoasts : Shipwrecked Mariners,' vol. xii. p. 32,
1865.

CAEDIA.D.E. — COCKLE. 43

found elsewhere. The costume of the women who
gather them is anything but becoming — large fisher-
men's boots, their dresses so arranged as to resemble
verv larsre knickerbockers, and an old hat or hand-
kerchief on their heads, with their baskets on their
backs.

I am told that some of the Gower people, on the
north side of the seigniory of Gower (a Flemish colony
in Glamorganshire), live nine months in the year on
cockles. They also carry large quantities to Swansea
market, whence they are sent to London, and indeed
by rail to all parts of England.

At Penclawdd tons of cockles are gathered to send
away, and women do the work. Mr. Wirt Sikes tells
us, that the sand-banks are lined with the "cockle-
wives " scraping for cockles, the scraper being made
from an old reaping-hook. The tide recedes for a
mile and exposes acres upon acres of sand in which the
cockles are embedded. Some of the women have
small carts or donkies with panniers, but the majority
carry their baskets on their heads. They earn in good
times, three or four shillings a day. The cockle is
usually boiled out of its shell, and sold by measure,
by the itinerant vendors. The cockles are generally
gathered on Friday for the Swansea market on
Saturday.*

Mr. Baines, in his ( Explorations in South-West
Africa/ tells us that cockle-shells are greatly prized
by the Damaras, and if they are rich enough to afford
it, one is worn in the hair over the centre of the fore-
head ; and he adds, that if some friend at home would
invest three-halfpence in these favourite mollusks, and

* ' Old South Wales,' by Wirt Sikes, p. 243.

44 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

send him the shells after his meal, he might make his
fortune. In the British Museum a fishing-net is ex-
hibited, from the Friendly Islands, with cockle-shells
fastened on to it to sink it, instead of leads.

Cockle-shells are used as cultch for the oyster spat
to adhere to; they are thrown on to the breeding
beds ; and they sow them during the time the oyster

spat are floating about in the sea Mr. Frank

Buckland, in his examination before the Select Com-
mittee on Oyster Fisheries, 1876, adds that "Spat
are especially fond of cockles, and that the great ad-
vantage of cockle-shells cultch is, that the oysters will
grow up in handsome bunches, they can then be
broken off, and they will grow into proper size and
shape, and become handsome and fit for market."

Major Hayes, Inspector of Irish Fisheries, in his
report on the principal Oyster Fisheries of France,
made in 1878, noticed at Arcachon, a new form of
collector for spat, viz., cockle-shells strung closely to-
gether upon wire, a hole being made in the shell near
the hinge ; the wire is run through, and when strung
they are placed at the proper time in situations favour-
able for catching spat. They are kept about three
inches above the mud by means of pegs placed at
intervals, to which the wire is attached, and they ap-
peared to succeed admirably, as when a long string,
or chaplet, as it is called at Arcachon, was lifted, every
shell was covered with young oysters.

Cockle-shells are also used for making garden
walks, and good lime is made from them when they
are calcined.

Pepys, in his ' Diary/ mentions the care with which
the ground in the Mall was kept for the game of " Pall

CAItDIAD.E. COCKLE. 4.J

mall." In 1663, May 15th, he says " I walked in the
Park (St. James's) discoursing with the keeper of the
Pall mall, who was sweeping it, and who told me, that
the earth is mixed that do floor the mall, and that
over all there is cockle-shells powdered, and spread, to
keep it fast, which however, in dry weather turns to dust
and deads the ball. The person who had the care of the
ground was called the " King's Cockle Strewer." *

In the heraldry of Prussia, the cockle-shell is used.
" Barry of four, argent and azure, semee of cockle-
shells counterchanged, are borne by the Silesian family
of Von Strachwitz, which has for crest, two wings also
charged with cockles/'f

We also find this shell figured on coins. A speci-
men in the British Museum of the sextans, the sixth
part of the as, or piece of two ounces, has on one side
a caduceus, a strigil, and two balls, and on the other, a
cockle-shell.

Ossian, in his poem the ' War of Inis-thona/ tells
us that the king of that island gave a feast to Oscar,
which lasted three days, and that they " rejoiced in
the shell," — meaning that they feasted sumptuously
and drank freely. Again, we meet with the " chief of
shells," and the " hails of shells." Macpherson calls
the cockle the "heroes' cup of festivity," being known
by the name of 8liga-crechin,% or the drinking -shell ;
and it is also stated that this shell is used in the
Hebrides for skimming milk.§ This seems, however,
hardly possible, for the " heroes " would probably not

* ' London : its Celebrated Characters and Remarkable Places/
vol. i. p. 138.

t Sibmacher's ' Wapenbuch,' Heraldry of Fish, p. 226.
X In Manx, SMigh, is the name for the cockle.
§ ' A Book for the Seaside.'

46 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

be content with so small a cup as the little common
cockle. It must have been some larger shell, and for-
merly the word " cockle " was applied to any shell :
besides which, the common cockle could not, from its
shape, be used for skimming milk, and from its size,
it would be of little use for that purpose. Moreover,
we know that the so-called cockle used in the
Hebrides for that purpose is a Mya, there called the
cockle.

The Irish, the South Welsh, and probably others,
call the whelk (Buccinum undatum) the Goggle, and
know it by no other name. It is evidently the same
word, and is more correctly applied, as we shall pre-
sently see.

" Cockle" w;is the common name in olden times
for the escallop of pilgrims, — " he wore the cockle in
his hat," &c. ; and it is still often used in heraldic
language. Lydgate, when he says —

" And as the coclcille, with heavenly dewe
So ciene
Of kynde, engendreth white perlis rounde."

means evidently the oyster, alluding to the old fable of
pearls being formed by the oyster's rising to the sur-
lace of the water at the full moon, and opening its
shell to receive the falling dew-drops, which thus
hardened into pearls, — an idea which is quaintly de-
tailed by Robinson, in his ' Essay towards a Natural
History of Westmoreland and Cumberland ' (1709),
who, in speaking of the pearls procured from the rivers
Irt and End, says " Those large shellfish which we call
horse-mussels, which, gaping eagerly and sucking in
their dewy streams, conceive and bring forth great
plenty of them," (the pearls), " which the neighbour-

CARDIAD^E. — COCKLE. 47

hood gather up at low-water, and sell at all prices."
The natives of India have a similar belief with regard
to the origin of pearls, viz. that they are congealed
dewdrops, which Buddha in certain months showers
upon the earth, when they are caught up by the oysters
whilst floating on the waters to breathe.*

The Asiatics have also an idea that the pearls found
in certain shellfish are produced from drops of rain-
water, which they imbibe : —

"Who spread out the earth on the face of the water,
And tbrm'd precious pearls from the tears of the clouds ! ; 'f

The natives of Java have a still stranger belief that
the pearls themselves breed and increase if placed in
cotton, and they sell what they term "breeding pearls"
for this purpose, affecting to distinguish the male
from the female. Those pearls which are clustered
together in the form of a blackberry, are said by them
to be thus produced. Nor is this belief peculiar to
Java, as a Spanish lady informed a friend of mine,
that, if seed-pearls were shut up in cotton-woo], they
would increase either in size or in number? The ex-
perience of our jewellers is, that the effect of cotton-
wool on pearls is to injure their colour, and make them
yellow. But it is said to preserve them, if they are
kept in a box with a piece of the root of ash, or in dry
magnesia. The tears of Chinese mermaids are said to
be pearls. J

Shakespeare says, —

" Love's feeling is more soft and sensitive
Than are the horns of cockled snads."

* ' Household Words/ vol. iii. p. 80. "My Pearl-fishing Expedition."
*f* Forbes, ' Oriental Memoirs,' vol. iii. p. 180.
% ' 3 Grange Njies from a Chinese Studio.'

-±S EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Here cockled means either shelled or whorled.

The Greek /co^Xta?, /c6y(\o<;, means a snail, or a shell
with a spiral whorl (hence the name of " goggle " for
the Buccinum); bat it is also used sometimes for a
bivalve shell or " cockle. " K.oy\idpiov is a spoon.

Camden, in his c Britannia ' (p. 962), in speaking of
Ireland, and of the commodities of the British Ocean,
savs, "There are cockles, also in great numbers, with
which they dye a scarlet colour so strong and fair,
that neither the heat of the sun nor the violence of the
rain will change it, and the older it is, the better it
looks/' Of coarse, the purple-fish (Purpura lapillus) is
here meant.

Locke also speaks of the "oyster or cockle."

The Latin cochlea is properly a snail; but cochlear
(cochleare, or cochlear ium), " a spoon," or "spoonful,"
seems to be derived from the form of a bivalve shell,
rather than of a snail ; it was also a measure for
liquids, and in medicine it still signifies a spoonful,
hence the Italian cucchiajo, French cuiller. Cochle-
arium was also used by the Romans for any small shell,
as in mediaeval times. Some authors, indeed, say the
spoon was called cochlear, not from its shape, but from
the pointed end or handle being ased for taking the
snails (cochlear) oat of their shells and eating them,
and the broader part for eating eggs, &c. This may
be doubted, but a spoon could scarcely resemble a
snail-shell, and Martial says (xiv. 121), u Sum cochleis
habilis, nee sum minus utilis ovis."

At the meeting of the Ethnological Society, March
4th, 1862, Mr. G. W. Earl gave an interesting descrip-
tion of the singular Malayan shell- mounds, which were
formed entirely of cockle -si tells. He described them as

CARDIAD-E. COCKLE. 4<J

existing in the province of Wellesley, near the Mudah
river; that they were about five to six miles from the
sea, situated on sandy ridges that appeared formerly to
bound the narrow estuaries communicating with the
ocean. He adds that these mounds of cockle-shells
are about eighteen to twenty feet high, and that the
Chinese immigrants have largely employed them as a
source of lime. These mounds are supposed to be of
great antiquity, from the fact of the shells being partly
cemented together by crystallized carbouate of lime,
the result of the very slow action of atmospheric and
aqueous influences. At the bottom of one mound
which contained 20,000 tons of shells, a human pelvis
was found ; and other remains and stone-implements
have been obtained from the Chinese lime-burners.
Mr. Earl attributes the formation of these mounds to
the Semangs, a diminutive negro race, now sparing] v
scattered over the surrounding country, but who were
evidently very numerous and widely spread in former
times.*

In Grey's e Australia/ vol. i.. mention is made of a
hill of broken shells, which it must have taken cen-
turies to form, situated between Port George the
Fourth, and Hanover Bay. " It covered nearly half an
acre of ground, and in some places was ten feet hi oh ;
it was situated over a bed of cockles, and was evidently
formed from the remains of native feasts, as their fire-
places and the last small heaps of shells were visible
on the summit of the hill." A similar mound noticed
near Port Essington, of shells rudely heaped together,
is supposed to be a burying-place of the Indians.

At Wigwam Cove, Tierra del Fuego, piles of old

* • Intellectual Observer,' vol. i. p. 239.

E

50 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

shells, often amounting to some tons in weight, were
noticed by Dr. Darwin, which had at different periods
formed the chief food of the inhabitants.*

These remind us of the so-called kjokkenmoddings
(kitchen heaps) of Denmark, or shell-mounds, to which
the attention of archaeologists has been recently at-
tracted in Northern Europe, and which consist of
thousands of shells of the oyster, cockle, and other
edible mollusks, with implements of stone, such as
flint knives, hatchets, &c, and implements of bone,
wood, and horn, with fragments of coarse pottery
mixed with charcoal and cinders. f

Quite recently, one of these kjokkenmoddings has
been discovered at Newhaven, in Sussex, and among
the objects found were limpet and other shells, with
bones of animals. J

In 1863, Sir John Lubbock published, in the
' Natural History Review/ an account he had received
from the Rev. G. Gordon, of Scotch kjokkenmoddings
on the Elginshire coast, resembling those in Denmark.
Mr. Gordon says, "By far the most striking, if not
the most ancient, of the kjokkenmoddings we have in
our vicinity, is that one which lies within a small wood
on the old margin of the Loch of Spynie, and on a sort
of promontory formed of those raised shingle beaches
so well developed in that quarter. This mound, or
rather two mounds (for there is an intervening portion
of the ground which has no shells), must have been of
considerable extent. A rough measurement gives
eighty by thirty yards for the larger, and twenty-six

* Darwin, • Voyage of Adventure and Beagle,' vol. iii. p. 234.
t Sir Charles Lyell's 'Antiquity of Man.'

CAEDIAD.E. COCKLE. 51

by thirty for the smaller portion. The most abundant
shell is the periwinkle ; next in order as to frequency
is the oyster, which, as well as those who had it as a
large item in their bill of fare, has passed away from
our coasts. Save in some of the nooks of our Firth,
as at Cromarty, Altirtie, and Avoch, we know not
where a small dish of them could be procured. As
third in order, in this mound, is the mussel, and then
the cockle."

Mr. Gordon further adds that similar refuse-heaps
are found all round the shores of the Moray Firth, and
that the farmers gradually cart them away to serve as
manure or top dressings.

These shell-mounds, Sir John Lubbock states, are
actually called " shelly-meddings " by the fishermen of
that district.

Sir Gardner Wilkinson found large masses of cockle-
shells embedded in the ditches of an old British camp
or earthwork, called " Nottle Tor," in the seigniory of
Gower, in Glamorganshire. This camp stands on a
high rock above the sea, and at some distance from
any dwelling-house ; the shells are therefore from fish
eaten by the ancient Britons.

Cockle, mussel, and oyster shells, are often dis-
covered in great quantities on the sites of Roman
stations.

In the reign of King John we read of vessels called
" cogs." They were supposed to be short and of great
breadth, like a cockle- shell, whence they are said to
have derived their name. The name "coo-" was
variously written, viz., kogge, gogga, kogh, cocka,
coqua, &c. " Cogs " were used for the conveyance of

E 2

52 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

passengers from England to France, and as coasting
vessels.*

To make Cockle Soup. — Boil your cockles, pick them
out of the shells, then wash them and put them into a
saucepan; take two or three pounds of fresh fish, and
a cullis, as for crayfish soup, and strain it through a
sieve, to the thickness of a cream : put a little of it to
your cockles ; cut off the top of a French roll, take out
the crumb, and fry it in a little butter, place it in the
middle of a soup-dish, your bread being soaked with
some of your cullis ; garnish with a rim of paste, lay
the cockle-shells round the outside; thicken up the
cockles with the yolk of an egg as you do a fricassee,
and put one or two into each shell round the soup ;
also fill up the loaf in the middle ; the cullis being
boiling hot, squeeze into it, and on the cockles, a little
lemon, and serve it up.f

Francatelli's Cockle Soup. — Scald, drain, beard, and
wash carefully, four dozen of cockles, reserving their
liquor in a pan. Put four ounces of butter into a stew-
pan to barely dissolve over the fire ; mix in four ounces
of flour, moisten with a pint and a half of good white
stock or milk ; season with nutmeg, a pinch of cayenne,
and a teaspoonful of anchovy; add half a pint of
cream ; stir over the fire for a quarter of an hour's
gentle boiling, and then, having cut the cockles in
halves, pour the hot soup over them in the tureen. J

Cockle Sauce. — Clean cockles thoroughly from all
particles of sand, put them into a saucepan with the

* ' Hist, ot the Royal Navy,' by Sir N. H. Nholns, vol. i., note, i>. 128.
f ' Cooks' and Confectioners' Dictionary,' by Johu iSott.
1 ' Cook's Guide.'

CAItDIAD^. COCKLE. 53

liquor and a little water, thicken with, flour and butter,
adding pepper, salt, a little mace, and some cream.

S oyer's Porridge of Cockles, oysters or mussels, for
the poor. They make a most nourishing and palatable
food, and on the coast a very economical one. — Take
two dozen oysters, or if you use cockles or mussels,
take a quart of either, put them into an earthen jar
with their liquor, and three tablespoonfuls of flour ;
place it on the fire, and stir them round and round ;
add a little salt and pepper, and they are done. Eat
them thus, or add them to soup or porridge. A little
dripping or lard is an improvement, also a bay-leaf,
mint, or an onion sliced.

Scalloped Cockles. — Wash the cockles well, tben
scald some dozens of them; strain the liquor into a
stew-pan, and add thereto two ounces of butter, mixed
with two ounces of flour, a little cream, anchovy, nutmeg,
and cayenne ; stir the sauce over the fire, to boil and
reduce, for ten minutes, then add a couple of yolks of
eggs, a little lemon-juice, and some chopped parsley ;
add the cockles ; stir all together over the fire for a few
minutes, and fill some scallop shells with this prepara-
tion. Cover them over with a thick coating of fried
bread-crumbs ; place them on a baking-sheet in the
oven for five minutes, and serve hot.*

Ragout of Cockles. — Clean your cockles, open them
and take them out of their shells, toss up some mush-
rooms in butter, put in your cockles with a bunch of
sweet herbs, and moisten the whole with half of their
own liquor, and as much fish-broth ; add some parsley
shred small, and some pepper ; when ready, thicken

* Francatelli.

54 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

with a fish cullis, let it be of high relish ; and serve up
hot*

Cockle Pie. — Wash them well, put into a stew-pan
to open ; then take them out of their shells and par-
boil them; wash them very clean in the water they
were boiled in, and a little white wine ; mince them
small with the yolks of hard-boiled eggs; season with
salt, pepper, and nutmeg, and squeeze in the juice of
one or two oranges (Seville are the best) ; put them
in your dish covered with paste, close them up, and
bake them ; when baked, liquor with butter, and white
wine, and garnish with slices of orange, f

To Stew Cockles. — Clean them and wash them from
the sand in three or four waters ; boil them and pick
them out of the shells. To a pint of the fish put
half-a-pint of fish stock, two ounces of butter, and
some pepper and salt ; add a spoonful of flour, stirred
in gradually, and simmer over a slow fire until it is of
a proper thickness ; add a large spoonful of essence of
anchovy, and one of mushroom ketchup. J

To Stew Cockles (A Grower Eecipe). — Wash the
cockles well and put them in a saucepan on the fire
to open ; this requires care, as, if they are left on long
they become very tough ; they should only just be
warmed enough to make them open. The usual way
of boiling them until they fall to the bottom saves
trouble, but spoils the fish. Fry some bacon, then
take it out of the frying-pan and keep it warm, and
put a quart of cockles into the fat that flowed out of
it. Fry the cockles for some time, stirring them
constantly, but do not brown them much ; then add

* ' Lady's Companion,' vol. i. t Ibid.

X Murray's ' Modern Cookery.'

CAEDIADtE. — COCKLE. 55

a tablespoonful of flour mixed in half-a-pint of water,
or rather more, and a little pepper ; let them stew in
the frying-pan (shaking it frequently), until the flour
is set. Serve them as hot as possible, and garnish
with the bacon, or not, according to taste.

The natives of the seigniory of Gower cook cockles
in various ways ; sometimes they fry them with ham.
They also make excellent pies of cockles with chopped
chives, a layer of bacon being placed at the bottom of
the dish ; or they fry the cockles with oatmeal and
chives, or oatmeal alone ; they also make of them an
excellent and nutritious soup.

In Ireland, the common cockles are cooked in their
shells over the fire, and eaten with oaten cake. The
shells are separated by twisting them apart, and a
little butter is put into the shell, which is then placed
on the turf-fire till the fish inside is fried.

Mr. Blackburn, in his ' Travelling in Spain in the
Present Day,' says, that one of the best dishes at
Seville is composed of rice, pimentoes, cockles (in-
cluding sand and shells), well boiled in oily gravy.

Caudium Rusticum, or Tuberculatum, Linnaeus.
Red-nosed Cockle. — Shell nearly three inches in length,
and two in breadth ; very solid, subrotund, opaque,
with twenty-one or more broad ribs which radiate
from the beaks, with knots or tubercles on them, which
on the anterior slope are flat, and even wanting in
young specimens, and on the posterior side are more
pointed and rugged ; the interstices between the ribs
coarsely striated. Umbones prominent; beaks in-
curved. Ligament large, central tooth large, and the
lateral teeth remote.

This large, handsome cockle is essentially a Mediter-

56 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

ranean species, and is rare and local iri England. Ifc
is found on the Devonshire coast, at Paignton, and
occasionally at Dawlish, and at certain times of the
year, especially in the spring after a gale from the
east, numbers may be gathered. On paying a visit to
the Paignton sands, for the purpose of shell collecting,
in the spring of 1862, the beach was quite strewn with
broken single valves of this cockle, and there had
evidently been quantities of live specimens washed up
as well, as we met many persons returning home with
their baskets heavily laden with them.

Cardium rusticum varies in colour, from nearly white
to a rich rufous-brown ; sometimes there is a white
band round the shell, and one of a dark chestnut-brown
towards the margins. The colouring of the animal is
most beautiful, the body being of a pink or pale
vermilion, the mantle yellow or reddish, and the long
foot of a most brilliant crimson. This foot terminates
in a hooked point, and when stretched to its utmost
is nearly four inches in length. It is by means of this
organ that the cockle can bury itself in the sands, and
also take those wonderful leaps of which we read in
Mr. Gosse's interesting work, 'The Aquarium/ and again
in his ( A Year at the Shore/ where he mentions that a
specimen was seen to throw itself over the gunwale of a
boat when laid on the bottom boards. Mr. Gosse
states, in this latter work, that the mode of leaping is
performed as follows : — " The long taper foot is thrust
to its utmost, and feels about for some resisting sur-
face, a stone, for instance, which it no sooner feels
than the hooked point is pressed stiffly against it,
the whole foot, by muscular contraction, is made
suddenly rigid, and the entire creature, — mantle,

CAHDIAD^]. COCKLE. 57

siphons, shell, and all, is jerked away in an uncouth
manner."

There is another cockle found also at Paignton,
which is even more scarce than Cardium rusticum, viz.
Cardium aculeatum ; it is larger and not so solid, with
long spines on each rib, and is of a pale brownish-pink
or flesh colour. It is very good to eat. I have had
splendid specimens sent to me, alive, from Paignton,
in a jar, with seaweed ; some measuring more than
three inches in length, and two-and-a-half in breadth,
and I have taken them myself at Langston Point, near
Dawlish. The foot of the animal is long, and of a
reddish-pink, but not nearly so vivid or brilliant in
colour as that of Cardium rusticum. It is also an
inhabitant of the Mediterranean.

Paignton method of Cooking the Red-nosed CocHe. —
Cleanse them for a few hours in cold spring water, and
then fry them in a batter made of bread-crumbs.*

Cockle Soup. — After the cockles have been well
washed, place them in a stew-pan over a slow fire till
they open, and then take them out of their shells.
Put an ounce of butter or lard, some finely-chopped
parsley, a sliced onion, a little pepper, and a teaspoon-
ful of anchovy, into a saucepan, with a little flour, and
fry till it becomes brown. To this add a pint of water,
or a pint and a half of milk, and when it boils, place
in your cockles. Let it boil again for half an hour,
then serve. The cockles being large will require to
be cut in halves or quarters, previous to their being
put into the soup ; and the quantity required would
be about two pounds' weight.

Pickled Red-noses. — Wash the shells well; then place
* Forbes and Hanley, ' Brit. Moll.' vol. ii. p. 15.

58 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

them in a saucepan of cold water with some salt in it.
Let them simmer until the water boils up, when they
are considered fully cooked ; on no account allow them
to remain longer on the fire. Take the fish out of the
shells and wash them in clean water, then sprinkle
them with a little salt and pepper ; place them in a
jar, and fill it up with vinegar. The fish thus pickled,
should keep perfectly for a month.

In the Bay of Naples, where these cockles abound,
they are eaten, as we are told by Poli,* either raw, or
cooked with oil, pepper, salt, herbs, and bread-crumbs.
They are called Cocciola at Naples, and Cappa tonda at
Venice; and Major Byng Hallf speaks of cockles
stewed in oil as being greatly prized by the natives of
Madrid ; and Cardium rusticum is known in Spain by
the names of Marolos, Conchas, and Romeus.

Fam. MYTILIDJ3.
MYTILUS.--MUSSm*.

Mytilus Edolis, Linnaeus. Common Mussel. — Shell
equivalved, wedge-shaped, rather pointed at the beaks.
In the hinge are three or four tooth-like crenulations.
Ligament internal, or nearly so, and very strong. Colour
of the shell a greyish-blue sometimes radiated with
darker blue. Epidermis olivaceous.

The mussel is called in Anglo-Saxon, Muscl, Huscel,
Muscule, Muscla } which names mean that which instantly
retires on being touched; in Dutch, Mossel; in DaDish,
Muskd ; in German, Muschel ; in French, Moule, at

* ' Testacea utriusque Siciliae,' 1795.
*f- ' Queen's Messenger/ p. 341.

MYTILID^E. MUSSEL. 59

Bordeaux, Charron (from the village of that name,
where there is a large mussel trade) ; in Feroese, Kreak-
lingur ; in Andalusia, Longherone, and in other parts of
Spain, Mocejones, Mexillones, Muscles, and Musclus.
The Venetian names for it are Peschio delV arsenale,
and Pedacchio di mar, and the Neapolitan, Cozza negra,
or Cozza di Tarento. Mussels are used for food in many
places, and also for bait, " and on some parts of the
Northumberland coast the fishermen have made mussel-
gardens for the preservation of those shellfish ; they
are formed by piling up stones round certain places on
the seashore, between tide-marks, and are carefully
watched by their proprietors.'"*

M. de Quatrefages, in his interesting work, ' Eambles
of a Naturalist/ gives an account of the origin and
development of the mussel-trade on the French coast.
" An Irishman of the name of Walton was shipwrecked
on the coast in 1235, near the little village of Esnandes,
in the Bay of Aiguillon, and was the only person saved
out of all the crew of the ill-fated vessel. He amply
repaid the services which had been rendered him ; some
sheep were saved from the wreck, which he crossed
with the animals of the country, producing a breed of
sheep which is still held in high estimation. He in-
vented a kind of net, the ' allouret/ for catching birds
which skim the surface of the water at twilight or dark,
and in order to make these nets thoroughly effective,
it was necessary to go to the centre of the immense
bed of mud, where the birds sought their food, and to
secure a number of poles to support the nets, which
were between 300 and 400 yards in length. On exa-
mining these poles, Walton discovered that they were

* ' A Book for the Seaside,' p. 100.

GO EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

covered with mussel spawn. He then increased the
number of his poles, and after various attempts he
constructed his first artificial mussel-bed, or bouchot.
At the level of the lowest tides he drove into the mud
stakes that were strong enough to resist the force of
the waves, and placed them in two rows about a yard
distant from each other. This double line of poles
formed an angle, whose base was directed towards the
shore, and whose apex pointed to the sea. This pali-
sade was roughly fenced in with long branches, and a
narrow opening having been left at the extremity of
the angle, wicker-work cases were arranged in such a
manner as to stop any fishes that were being carried
back by the retreating tide. It was soon found inex-
pedient to trust only to the chance of the currents and
waves that might bring in the young mussels to
the poles and fences, and men frequently went to a
very great distance in search of the young mollusks, —
even as far as the plateau of Chatelaillon."

M. de Quatrefages further tells us, that the little
mussels that appear in the spring are called seeds;
they are scarcely larger than lentils till towards the
end of May, when they rapidly increase in size, and are
then called renouvelains, and in July are ready for
transplanting. They are detached from the bouchots
which are situated at lowest tide-mark, and are then
put into pockets or bags made of old nets, " which are
placed upon the fences that are not quite so far
advanced into the sea." The young mussels attach
themselves by means of their byssus all round the
pockets or bags. As they increase in size and become
crowded together, they are taken out and distributed
over other poles lying nearer the shore, and the full-

MYTII.IDJE. MUSSEL. 61

grown mussels, which are ready for sale, are planted on
the houchots nearest the shore. The fishermen gather
enormous quantities of fresh mussels every day, and
take them in carts, or on the backs of horses, " to La
Rochelle, and other places, from whence they are sent
as far as Tours, Limoges and Bordeaux."

It appears that the French mussel breeders have
discovered that mussels which live suspended to piles,
or ropes of vessels, nets, &c, attain to a larger size, than
those which live on the bottom, be it sandy, rocky or
muddy ; they therefore suspend thick ropes to wooden
piles, and the mussels adhere by their byssus to them,
the ropes are then tightened a little to prevent the
animals lying on the bottom.*

The fishermen of Cherbourg consider that there are
two distinct varieties of the common mussel, viz.,
Mytilus incurvatus and Mytilus achatinus. The former
is usually sold under the name of Cayeu, and is much
esteemed by the consumers of mussels, the flesh being
more delicate and easier of digestion ; and it is also
stated, that the shell of this species is never inhabited
by the Pinnotheres, which is often found in the common
mussel. The Cayeu is generally to be found on the
rocks, where it lives rather isolated ; while the common
mussel is found on the muddy sand. The second
variety, viz., Mytilus achatinus, is to be met with only
in the neighbourhood of the " Grand-Vey/' and then
only at spring-tides. It is much less esteemed as food,
as it is tougher than Mytilus incurvatus. It is sold at
Cherbourg under the name of la Blonde, on account of
its colour. t

* Phipson's ' Utilization of Minute Life,' pp. 163, 164.
t ' Essaie d'un Catalogue des Mollutques, marins, terrestres et
fluviatiles/ par Al. J. A. Mace.

62 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

The British method of renring mussels differs from
that of the French. By the latter, endeavours are made
to intercept the spat, as we have already seen, and by
the former, the young mussels are removed from the
grounds where they have been deposited, as soon as
they are sufficiently large, to positions up estuaries, at
some distance from the sea, where they are uncovered
at low-water. They grow and fatten by the admixture
of the fresh- water with the salt-water.*

The Billingsgate market is chiefly supplied with
mussels from Holland, the east coast of England, Corn-
wall, and Devonshire, in August and September ;
though smaller quantities are received from other parts
of our coasts, besides those above mentioned. About
ten or twenty tons' weight arrive at a time, though, of
course, the quantity varies according to the season, and
they are sold at Is. a measure. In the evidence given
before the Fisheries Commission at Exeter, Decem-
ber 24, 1863, it was stated, that the price of these
shellfish taken in the estuary at Lympstone, was
8s. per sack of ten pecks, but that the supply was de-
creasing.

Mussel culture is now successfully carried on, on the
Boston Deep beds. Mr. Frank Buckland stated, in his
examination before the Select Committee on Oyster
Fisheries, in 1876, that, since the Lynn and Boston cor-
porations have taken the beds under their protection,
the mussels have increased immensely. The average
value of these shellfish in the Lynn Deep alone, is about
£3400 a year. There are 16 bags, or 32 bushels, in a
ton of mussels, and each ton is worth about £1.

* ' Fish and Fisheries,' edited by David Herbert, M.A. ' Best Means
of Increasing Mussels,' &c., by J. C. Wilcocks.

HYTILID2E. MUSSEL. 63

Dr. Knapp informed Messrs. Forbes and Hanley that
the quantity of mussels consumed in Edinburgh and
Leith is about 10 bushels per week, " say for forty
weeks in the year, in all 400 bushels annually. Each
bushel of mussels, when shelled and freed from all
refuse, will probably contain from 3 to 4 pints of the
animals, or about 900 to 1000, according to their size.
Taking the latter number, there will be consumed, in
Edinburgh and Leith, about 400,000 mussels. This is
a mere trifle compared to the enormous number used
as bait for all sorts of fish, especially haddocks, cod,
ling, halibut, plaice, skate, &c; and at Newhaven the
total consumption of mussels for bait may be reckoned
at 4,320,000 annually. There are nearly as many used
at Musselburgh, Fisherrow, &c, and other places on
the Frith of Forth, and we may calculate that 30,000,000
or 40,000,000 of mussels are used for bait alone by the
fishermen of that district each year."*

We learn from Mr. P. Wilson, late Inspector of
Fisheries at Eyemouth, in Scotland, that in one week
alone, sixty-one tons of mussels were used for baiting
the long lines, by the boats from the fishing stations of
Eyemouth, Burnmouth, and Coldingham, the cost of
which was about £1 60, the produce in fish from which
was 25,620 stone, worth £2500.f

Mussels are considered to be the best bait for salt-
water fish, and will keep alive two days, when taken
from the shell, and suspended on a hook in sea-
water.

The mussel has the power of attaching itself by means
of its " byssus," to rocks and stones ; and we read that

* Forbes and Hanley, ' British Mollusca,' vol. ii. pp. 174, 175.
f 'Molluscs, Mussels, Whelks, &c./ by Charles Harding-.

6-1 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLI.USCA.

the bridge at Bideford, in Devonshire, cannot be kept
in repair by mortar, owing to the rapidity of the tide.
"The corporation, therefore, keep boats to bring mussels
to it, and. the interstices of the bridge are filled by hand
with these shellfish, and. it is supported, entirely by the
strong byssus or threads these mussels fix to the
stonework. ,; *

This byssus proceeds from a gristly shaft, which,
Dr. Jeffreys states, appears to support the bundle of
filaments like the handle of a broom ; and Aristotle
mentions this shellfish in his list of cartilaginous
fish.

So valuable are mussels towards the protection of the
shores from the inundations of the sea on some parts
of our coasts, that it becomes necessary to prevent their
being gathered in some places (see ' Times/ August 7th,
1865). An action for trespass was brought some time
a^o for the purpose of establishing the right of the lord
of the manor to prevent the inhabitants of Heacham
from taking mussels from the seashore. The locality
is the foreshore of the sea, running from Lynn in a
north-westerly direction towards Hunstanton, Norfolk j
and " the nature of the shore is such that it requires
constant attention, and no little expenditure of money,
to maintain its integrity, and guard against the serious
danger of inundations of the sea." A large quantity
of shingle, seaweed, and mussels is always to be seen,
and beds of mussels extend for miles along the shore,
and mix with the seaweed and shingle, which get fixed
on the artificial jetties running into the sea, attaching
themselves by means of the byssus to these embanking
defences, thereby rendering them firm, and thus acting

* ' Glimpses of Ocean Life,' p. 179.

MYTILID.E. MUSSEL. 65

as barriers against the sea; therefore, while it is im-
portant for the inhabitants, who claim a right by custom
to take mussels and other shellfish from the shore, it
is equally important for the lord of the manor to do his
utmost to prevent these natural friends of bis embank-
ments and jetties, from being removed in large quan-
tities from his part of the shore.

According to Mr. Frank Buckland, the mussel is a
great hindrance to the development of oyster-beds.
" The mussel spat is sent forth, and the young mussels
fall down upon the oyster-beds, and spin their webs
over them, like beautiful silk ropes, by means of which
they hold on to rocks and other things. They accu-
mulate the mud, and the mud covers the oysters."

Neumann tells us that calcined mussel-shells make
strong lime and bind quickly, and that shell-lime is
generally considered stronger than stone-lime. Mussel-
shells, when polished, make pretty pincushions and
needle- books, and at the colourists they are filled with
gold, silver, and bronze, and sold for heraldic painting
and illuminating. It was in one of these shells, also,
in which the witch, in the quaint old story, put to sea
for the purpose of wrecking her enemy's ships,

A large species of mussel, called awabi, or awabee,
is said to be used in Japan as a new year's gift. The
day is spent in paying respects, visiting, and giving
presents to friends and relatives, and they mostly con-
sist of awabi. I believe, however, that it was not a
mussel that was given as a new year's gift, but the
large Haliotis yigantea, which is called awabi, by the
Japanese, as we shall presently see. Awabi, in days of
yore, were the first sustenance and support of the
Japanese, as acorns were formerly the primitive diet

66 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

of the inhabitants of Europe, and the awabl is the
emblem, or rather the memorial, of the frugality of
their forefathers.*

There is another purpose for which these shells are
used, which would astonish the " Truefitts," of the
present day; for Grey, in his 'Australia/ mentions
that amongst the contents of a native woman's bag
was a mussel-shell for cutting the hair.

There is an interesting account in Captain O'Brien's
' Adventures during the late War/ of the method of
fishing for mussels in the Bay of Concepcion. A man
and woman in a canoe push off from the shore, to a
certain depth, when the man with a long pole ascer-
tains the depth of the mussel-bed. This pole, which
has a sharpened end, is struck into the bed, and
serves as the anchor or mooring for the boat; the
woman, with her arms round it, makes it her line of
descent. With this as a conductor, she slides or slips
down, and soon reappears with her arms crossed round
the pole, but with both hands as full as they can hold of
mussels. Having deposited her handfuls in the canoe,
she descends again and again six or eight times, until
her cargo is complete. Upon Captain O'Brien's remon-
strating with a man for imposing such a dangerous
duty upon a woman, instead of undergoing it himself,
he explained to him, that this diving was a privilege of
the sex, and that no man would dare to be so unmanly
as to rob a woman of her birthright. These Chilian,
or Bay of Concepcion belles, sell their produce in the
market for dresses and finery.

The usual size of the common mussel is about two
inches and a half in length, and about half that in

* ' Ri ligious Ceremonies,' vol. iv. p. 315.

MYTILID^. — MUSSEL. 67

breadth; but in 1862 I produced two specimens from
Exmouth, which had been dredged, the largest measur-
ing five inches in length and two and a half in breadth,
the other four inches long and one and a quarter
wide. Large mussels are brought from Padstow, and
are sold in the Truro market ready boiled for eating,
and, when cooked, the fish measures quite two iuches
in length ; the colour is like the yolk of a hard-boiled
egg and the flesh is very sweet and tender. The shells
of these, measured four inches in length, and two and
a half inches in breadth. Though mussels are a valuable
article of food, and considered wholesome, yet many
cases of poisoning by mussels have occurred ; but it
may generally be traced to their having been gathered
from either the sides of docks, or piers, where there
are copper bolts or nails, or from ships that are copper-
bottomed ; or else from the neighbourhood of large
town sewers, the sewerage water running over the
rocks on which the mussels grow. In the ( Field/
November 15th, 1862, is an interesting account of an
experiment made on oysters that had become so im-
pregnated with copper as to be as green as verdigris.
They were taken from Falmouth harbour. An at-
tempt was made to extract the copper from them ;
and, after putting a hundred or more into a large
crucible, reducing them to ashes, and continuing to
increase the heat until the copper was melted; the
produce was a bright bead of pure copper, which, ac-
cording to the description, would be about the size of a
large pin's head. Mr. Penwarne, who communicated
this article to the ' Field/ adds, that the oysters may
have lain on a lode, or the copper might have accu-
mulated from the wash of the stamping-mills. This

f 2

68 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

proves, without doubt, that shellfish cau be impreg-
nated with copper or other poisonous substances,
which probably would affect those who ate them.
Some persons consider that mussels are* unwholesome
if a small species of crab (Pinnotheres pisum, or
Pinnotheres veterum), which is sometimes found in
their shells, is not carefully taken out ; others, that
they are only fit for food in the winter months ; and
by some on account of their feeding on the spawn of
the star-fish, which is poisonous.* It is said that if a
silver spoon is boiled with the mussels, and it turns
black, it proves that they are poisonous, and not fit to
be eaten. But, whatever may be the cause of the
wholesale poisoning by these shellfish, they have been
the means of saving many poor from starvation in times
of scarcity. Mr. Patterson, of Belfast, in his ' Intro-
duction to Zoology/ mentions having been informed
by an old inhabitant of Holywood, near the above-
mentioned town, that in 1792, or 1793, there was a
great drought prevailing, which caused much distress,
and that in the month of June or July, twenty poor
families from the interior of the country encamped on
the roadside, near the beach to the west of Holywood,
remaining there about five weeks, subsisting partly
on such vegetable matter as they could pick up about
the hedgerows and fences, but principally upon
the mussels which are so abundant on the extensive
mud-banks of the neighbouring coast. No instance
of disease from this diet occurred, and during that
summer the poorer classes in the village appeared
quite as healthy as in other years, though mussels
formed their chief food.

* ' British Conchology,' vol. i'i. p. 109.

MYTILID^I. — MUSSEL. 69

Some of the natives inhabiting the Patagoniati
Channels between the Gulf of Penas and Smyth's
Channels, live the greater part of the year almost
entirely on mussels and limpets, varied occasionally
by the capture of a seal or small otter.*

Athena3us says that mussels are moderately nutri-
tious and digestible, the best being the Ephesian kind,
which are particularly good when taken about the end
of autumn (vol. i. p. 150).

In the Feroe Isles, the large horse-mussel, Mytilus
modiolus is eaten, and they call it in Feroese Ova. Mr.
Alder tells us that at Rothesay they are collected for
food f (though not so delicate as Mytilus edulis), and
in the Shetland Isles for bait, where they are known
by the name of Yoags. They are also eaten in the
north of Ireland, but not considered very good, on
account of their strong scent and flavour; but they
are capital bait for cod. In Labrador the bait gene-
rally used at the commencement of the cod-fishing
season, viz., in May and June, consists of mussels
salted for the purpose ; but as soon as the capelings
(Mallofus villosus) reach the coast, they are sub-
stituted, to save expense ; and in many instances the
flesh of gannets and other sea fowl is employed. J

At Tenby, they call Mytilus modiolus the poisonous
mussel, and affirm that no one ever ventures to
eat it.

Pearls are occasionally found in the common mussel,
and also in the oyster, scallop, cockle, periwinkle, and

* ' Cruise of the Alert/ p. 48.

+ Forbes aud Hanley, ' Brit. Mollusca/ vol. ii. p. 185.
J ' Life and Adventures of John James Audubon,' edited by R. Bu-
chanan, p. 246, chap. xlii.

70 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

pinna; but they are generally inferior ia size and
quality to those of the freshwater pearl-mussel, Unio
margaritiferus ; and Mr. Beckman, in his ' History of
Inventions/ states that real pearls are found under
the shield of the sea-hare (Aplysia), as has been ob-
served by Bohadsch, in his book ' De Animalibus
Marinis ' (Dresdas, 1761). Our Scotch pearl-fishery
has, within the last few years, been revived, and in
1860 Mr. Moritz Unger, a foreigner, on making a tour
through the districts where the pearl-mussel abounds,
found that the pearl-fishing was not altogether for-
gotten, many of the people having pearls in their pos-
session, of which they did not know the value. He
purchased all he could obtain ; consequently, in the
following year, many persons devoted their spare time
to pearl-fishing, and during the summer months made
as much as £8 to £10 weekly. The summer of 1862
was most favourable for fishing, owing to the dryness
of the season, and the average price was from £2 6s.
to 10s. ; £5 being a high price. They now fetch prices
varying from £5 to £20. The Queen purchased one
Scotch pearl for 40 guineas; others at high prices
have been bought by the Empress of the French and
the Duchess of Hamilton, and Mr. Unger had a neck-
lace of these pearls valued at £350.* In 1867, at the
September meeting of the ' Perthshire Society of
Natural Science/ attention was called to the pro-
bability of the ultimate extinction of the pearl-mussel
Unio margaritiferus in the rivers near Perth, owing to
the quantities destroyed in search of pearls, thousands
of shells being left on the banks of the rivers where

* The ' Times/ December 24, 1863.

MYTILIDvE. MUSSEL. 71

the pearl-fishers had pursued their searches.* These
mussels are found in Lochs Earn, Tay, Rannoch, and
Lubnaig, and in the Don, the Leith, and in many of
the other Scotch streams; also in some of the Welsh
rivers, from whence I have received fine specimens ; in
Ireland, near Enniskillen, and in the river Bann, which
is noted for its fine pearls.

Sir Robert Redding, in a letter dated Dublin,
October 13th, 1688, — as quoted by Dr. Boate in his
' Natural History of Ireland/ — says " that there are
four rivers in the county of Tyrone abounding with
pearl-mussels, all emptying themselves into Lough
Foyle, whereon stands the town of Derry. There are
also other rivers in the county of Dunnagall, a river
near Dundalk, the Shure, running to Waterford ....
And no doubt there may be many more that I do not
know ; all these places are at the feet of very great
mountains. The manner of pearl-fishing is not extra-
ordinary, the poor people, in the warm months, before
harvest is ripe, whilst the rivers are low and clear, go
into the water, some with their toes, some with wooden
tongs, and some by putting a sharpened stick into the
opening of the shell, take them up ; and although by
common estimate not above one shell in a hundred
may have a pearl, and of those pearls not above one
in a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of
fair merchantable pearls, and too good for the apothe-
cary, are offered for sale by those people every
summer assize. Some gentlemen of the country make
good advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw
one pearl bought for 50*., that weighed 36 carats, and
valued at £40."

* * Naturalist's Circular,' No. 17, October, 1867.

72 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

The penrl-inussels are collected in the same manner
now, viz., by wading for them in shallow pools, or by
thrusting a long stick between the valves when the
shell is open. When a number have been collected
they are left to decompose, when the pearls drop out.*
They may also be found in Kerry, in the Moy, near
Foxford, and in many of the other Irish rivers; and
Mr. Buckland stated in the ' Field/ December 10th,
1864, that they abound near Oughterard, and that a
man called u Jemmy the Pearl-catcher" told him he
knew when a mussel had a pearl in it, without re-
quiring to open it first, because " she (the mussel) sits
upright with her mouth in the mud, and her back is
crooked/' that is, it is corrugated like a cow's horn.
Bruce, in his l Travels/ observes that the pearl-fishers
of Bahrein informed him that they had no expectation
of finding a pearl when the shell was smooth and per-
fect, but were sure to find some when the shell was
distorted, and deformed ; and he adds that this applies
equally to the Scotch pearl-mussels. In France they
also collect pearls from the pearl-mussels, and they
generally sell them as foreign pearls. At Omagh, in
the north of Ireland, there was formerly a pearl-fishery,
and Gilbert, Bishop of Limerick, about 1094, sent a
present of Irish pearls to Anselm, Archbishop of
Canterbury. Pearls were much used in Irish religious
ornaments in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Scotch pearls were in demand abroad as early as the
twelfth century. In the fourteenth century (1355)
Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the
Parisian goldsmiths, by which it was enacted that no
worker in gold or silver should set them with oriental

* * Tour iu Ulster.'

MYTILIDyE. MUSSEL. 73

pearls, except in large ornaments or jewels for churches.
In the reign of Charles L, the Scotch pearl trade was
considered of sufficient importance to be worthy of the
attentiou of Parliament.*

John Spruel in ' An Accompt Current betwixt Scot-
land and England,' Edinburgh, 1705, says, "If a Scotch
pearl be of a fine transparent colour, and perfectly
round, and of any great bigness, it may be worth 15,
20, 30, 40 to 50 rix-dollars, yea, I have given 100 rix-
dollars (£16 9s. 2d.) for one, but that is rarely to get

such I have dealt in pearl these forty years

and more, and yet to this day 1 could never sell a
necklace of fine Scots pearl in Scotland ; nor yet fine
pendants, the generality seeking for oriental pearls,
because further fetcht. At this very day I can show
some of our own Scots pearl, as fine, more hard and
transparent than any oriental. It is true that the
oriental can be easier matcht because they are all of a
yellow water; yet foreigners covet Scots pearl.
Suetonius says that the great motive of Caesar's
coming to Britain was to obtain its pearls, and states
that they were so large that he used to try the weight
of them by his hand, and dedicated a breastplate made
of them to Venus Genetrix.f

Oriental pearls are found in the Meleagrina margari-
tifera, or pearl-oyster, which belongs to the family
Aviculidse.

The common freshwater JJnio [JJnio tumidus), and
also JJnio pidorum, both produce pearls, but they are
generally small, and of a bad colour; sometimes I

* ' The Scotch Pearl Fishery ' (' The Wesleyan and Methodist Maga-
zine,' January, 1865, from the ' Times' and the ' Scotsman').
f Camden's ' Britannia,' p. 962.

74 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

have found several in one shell, and again, I have
opened many, and not been successful.

A species of freshwater mussel, Anodonta ci/gnea, is
said to be eaten in the county of Leitrim by the
peasantry, and Unionidce are eaten in the south of
Europe, either roasted in their shells and drenched
with oil, or covered with bread-crumbs, and scalloped ;
and, according to Dr. Wilhelm Gottlob Rosenhauer,
Unio Hequienii, and TJnio litoralis, which are found near
Granada, in the river Jenil, are often brought to the
market; but when the fish are taken out of their shells
and cooked, they are described as very tough food.
Anodontce and TJnionidce (Anodontes et Mulettes), are
employed by the fishermen in the neighbourhood of
Nantes for bait;* and I have occasionally used Dreis-
sena polymorpha, for the same purpose, which seemed
to be greatly appreciated by the fish in the pond where
I was fishing, as they greedily sucked off the bait as
fast as it was put on the hook. The Dreissence were
brought from the canal at Sawley, Leicestershire, and
turned into the ponds, where they have thriven
wonderfully, and are the favourite food of water-rats,
if one may judge from the number of empty shells
deposited on the banks, amongst the rushes, in small
heaps sometimes two or three inches deep. In some
countries the shells of the large Anodontce are used for
skimming milk. In China, in the province of Nanking,
Anodonta edulis (Heude) is said by M. R. P. Heude to
be cultivated in the large canals of Song-kiang-fou for
eating purposes/]- and in the Chinese market atTa-kou
Anodontce are brought in basketfuls from the Pei-ho

* ' Catalogue des Radiaires,' etc., par Frederic Cailliaud, de Nantes,
f ■ Diagnoses Molluscoruin in fluminibus provinciae Nankingensis

MYTILID^E. — MUSSEL. 75

river and sold as food.* The valves of TJnio ttentsi-
nensts, the Ko-fen of the Chinese, are used by them
as a powder in medicine, and occasionally as one of the
ingredients in pills, as a substitute for pearls.f

The pearl-mussels Dipsa plicatus, and the Alasmo-
dontcp, both belonging to the family Unionidce, are used
for the artificial production of pearls in China. The
art of artificial pearl-making is of great antiquity.
The Chinese attribute it to a native of Hutchefu,
named Ye-jin-Yang, who lived in the thirteenth cen-
tury. His memory is still honoured by those who
practise the art, and there is a temple especially
dedicated to him. There is a large manufactory of
these artificial pearls in the neighbourhood of Canton,
and at Hutchefu, near the river Ning-Po. In the
months of April and May the Dipsas, and Alasmodontce,
are furnished with matrices of metal, placed between
the shell and the mantle of the fish. In one year they
are incrustated with the nacre; but sometimes they are
left longer to obtain a thicker coating. Thus are pro-
duced the little figures of idols with which the Chinese
ornament their hats and caps. J The valves of Dipsa
plicatus are used also for weighing grains of rice, &c.

In the north-western part of Australia, a freshwater
mussel forms a staple article of food, while in the
south-western part of the continent the natives will
not touch them, but regard them with a superstitious

Collectorum,' auctore, R. P. Heude, S. J. 'Journal de Conchyliologie,'
tome xxii. 1874.

* ' Notice sur la Malacologie de quelques points du littoral de
l'Einpire Chinois,' par Odon Desbeaux, ' Journal de Conch.'

+ ' Essai sur la Pharinacie et la Matiere Medicale des Chinois,' par
J. O. Desbeaux.

X ' Journal de Conchyliologie,' P. Fischer, tome xiii. 1865.

76 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

dread and abhorrence. In Grey's f Australia J he gives
an account of a native, Kaiber by name, whom he
ordered to gather some of these shellfish for food, as
they were nearly dying from hunger; but the man
steadfastly refused, as he affirmed that by touching
them, the native sorcerer, or " Boyl-yas," would ac-
quire a mysterious influence over him, which would end
in his death. At last, however, he was ordered to
bring some instantly, as Mr. Grey intended eating
them. After thinking for a moment or so, Kaiber
walked away for this purpose, but bitterly lamented
his fate whilst occupied with his task. It was true,
he said, he had not died of hunger or thirst, but this
was all owing to his courage and strong sinews ; yet,
what would these avail against the supernatural powers
of the Boyl-yas. " They will eat me at night, whilst
worn-out by fatigue I must sleep." However, the
mussels were brought, and Mr. Grey made a meal of
them * It is not only of late years that Mytilus edulis
has been thought worthy to grace our table, for in
1390 we have the following recipes given in a " role "
of ancient English cookery, compiled by the master
cooks of King Richard II., called the l Forme of
Oury :'-

" Muskels in breivet (broth), 122. — Take muskels
(mussels), pyke them, seeth hem with the own broth
(in their own liquor). Make a lyor (mixture) of
crustes (i.e. of brede) and vinegar; do in onyons
inynced, and cast the muskels thereto, and seeth it,
and do thereto powder, with a lytel salt and safron.
The samewise make of oysters.

ie Caw del of 3/uslcels, 124. — Take and seeth muskels,

* • Australia,' vol. ii. pp. 84, 85.

MYTILIL\E. MUSSEL. 77

pyke (pick) hem clene and waishe hem clene in wyne.
Take almandes and bray hem. Take some of the
muskels and grynde hem, and some hewe small. Draw
(mix up) the muskels yground (that are ground) with
the self (same) broth. Wryng the almandes with
faire (clean) water. Do all this togider. Do thereto
verjous (verjuice) and vinegar. Take whyte of lekes,
and parboil hem wel. Wryng out the water, and hew
hem small. Cast oile thereto, with onyons parboiled,
and minced small. Do thereto powder, fort, safron,
and salt; a lytel seeth it, not to stondyng (too thick),
and messe it forth."*

Soyer's Recipe for Cooking Mussels. — Take three
dozen mussels, wash them and place in a stew-pan over
the fire for ten minutes, to open the shell (sometimes
a small crab will be found in them, which remove, as
they are rather unwholesome); replace them with their
liquor, and bottom shell, in the pan ; add a spoonful of
flour, mixed with some butter or lard, and a spoonful
of chopped parsley ; stir it, and stew for five minutes,
and serve. If required in large quantities, take the
large boiler, put therein four pounds of lard or butter
and four pounds of sliced onions ; fry for five minutes.
Have ready two pailfuls of mussels out of the shell,
and in their liquor, which put in the boiler with one
pound of salt, two ounces of pepper, two ounces of
sugar, two pounds of chopped parsley, and two pounds
of flour, mixed with water to the thickness of good
cream ; boil ten or fifteen minutes, stir it gently with
a wooden spatula, and serve. If not required maigre,
use instead of water, the same quantity of boiliDg

* 'Autiquitates Cuiinarise,' by the Rev. Richard Warner, p. 23.

78 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

stock mixed with flour; a flavour of herbs may be
given if liked, and bits of meat added to it.

Mussel Soup. — Take the liquor that flows from the
mussels when open on the fire, and strain it through a
fine napkin ; put it into some good broth ; add the
yolks of six eggs beat up with it, thicken it over the
fire, and put it into your soup when ready to serve,
arranging the mussels round the dish.*

Mussel Soup with Crawfish. — Take a hundred mus-
sels, wash them very clean, put them into a stew-pan,
cover them close. Let them stew till open, then take
them out of their shells, strain the liquor through a
fine sieve over the mussels. Take a dozen crawfish,
pound them up with a dozen of almonds blanched and
beat fine ; then take a small parsnip, and a carrot
scraped and cut into thin slices ; fry them brown,
with a little butter. Take two pounds of any fresh
fish, and boil in a gallon of water, with a bundle of
sweet herbs, a large onion stuck with cloves, whole
pepper, black and white, a little parsley, a small piece
of horseradish, and salt the mussel liquor, the crawfish
and the almonds. Let this boil till half is wasted,
then strain it through a sieve, put the soup into a
saucepan, with twenty of the mussels, a few mushrooms
and truffles cut small, and a leek cut very small. Take
two French rolls, take out the crumb and fry it brown,
cut it into little pieces, put it into the soup, and let
it boil altogether for a quarter of an hour, with the
fried carrot and parsnip. In the meantime take the
crust of the rolls fried crisp, half a hundred of the
mussels, a quarter of a pound of butter, a spoonful of
water, and shake in a little flour, then set this on the

* ' French Family Cook.'

MYTILIDiE. — MUSSEL. 79

fire, keeping the saucepan shaking all the time till the
butter is melted. Season with pepper and salt ; beat
the yolks of the eggs and put them in, stir all the
time for fear of curdling, add a little grated nutmeg.
When it is thick and fine, fill the rolls, pour your soup
into the dish, place in the rolls, and lay the rest of the
mussels round the rim of the dish.*

Mussels a la Poulette. — Take two quarts of mussels
— the smallest are the most delicate; scrape the shells
carefully, with a knife, and wash in water, changed
several times, till perfectly free from grit. Put one
quart of the mussels in a saute-pan, with a sliced
onion, four ounces, a few sprigs of parsley, say one
ounce, two pinches of salt, two small pinches of pepper,
one pint of French white wine. Cover the saute-pan ;
put it on the fire, and toss the mussels occasionally ;
when the shells open the mussels are done, then take
them out of the saute-pan, and take off one shell.
Put the second quart on the fire, and cook them in
the same way. It is advisable to cook only half the
quantity at a time, as the mussels would not be done
evenly, if too many were put in the pan at once.
Be careful not to let them be overdone, as this
would shrink and harden them, and impair their
quality.

Strain the liquor into a basin ; put into a stew-pan
one ounce of butter, and one ounce of flour ; stir over the
fire for three minutes ; mix the liquor, and add enough
water to produce a pint of sauce ; thicken it with
two yolks of eggs and half an ounce of butter, add one
tablespoonful of chopped parsley. Dip the mussels in
plenty of hot water; drain them well, and wipe them.

* ' The Art of Cookery made Plain arid Easy.'

SO FDIBLE BEITTSH MOLLIJSCA.

Serve the mussels in their shells, pouring the sauce
over them."*

Mussels a la Mariniere. — Prepare and cook the
mussels as in the preceding- recipe, putting, however,
half a pint more wine for boiling them ; that is, a pint
and a half instead of one pint. When the mussels are
done, strain the liquor through a pointed gravy
strainer, into a stew-pan; boil it, and add three ounces
of butter, and a tablespoonful of chopped parsley; take
off the fire, and stir till the butter is melted ; drain
and wipe the mussels ; put them on a dish, in their
shells, pour the sauce over them, and serve ; — half an
ounce of well washed and chopped shalot can also be
added to the sauce, if the flavour is not objected to.f

Mussel Sauce. — Cleanse, beard, wash, and blanch or
parboil two quarts of mussels, take all the white fat
mussels out of their shells, and place in a bain-marie,
reserving their liquor in a basin. Then knead four
ounces of butter with two ounces of flour, some nutmeg,
pepper, and salt, add the liquor from the mussels, a piece
of glaze, and half a pint of cream ; stir the whole on
the stove fire till it boils, and keep it boiling for ten
minutes, then add a season of four yolks of eggs, and
pass through a tammy on the mussels ; just before
sending the sauce to table, throw in a tablespoonful
of chopped and blanched parsley, and a little lemon-
juice. This sauce is well adapted for boiled whitings,
turbot, cod, haddock, and gurnet. J

To dress Mussels. — After having well washed and
scraped their shells, drain them, and put them to dry
in a stew-pan over a good fire, letting them remain

* ' The Royal Cookery Book,' by Jules Gouffe. t Ibid.

X Francatelh 3 ' Aloderu Cook.'

MYTILIDiE. MUSSEL. 81

till the heat opens them. Then take them out of the
shells one by one, being careful to pick off the beards
where you find any, and put them into a stew-pan,
with a bit of butter, parsley, and scallions, shred
small ; shake them over the fire, and put a little flour,
moistening them with broth ; when the sauce is con-
sumed, put in the yolks of three eggs, beat up with
cream, thicken it over the fire, and afterwards add a
dash of verjuice (or lemon) .*

Mussel Fritters. — Take them out of their shells, and
steep them two hours in a quart of vinegar, some
water, and a little butter, rolled in flour, with salt,
pepper, parsley, scallions, tarragon, garlic, a little
carrot and parsnip, thyme, laurel, and basil ; the whole
make lukewarm, then take out your mussels, dry, and
dip them in a batter made with flour, white wine, and
a spoonful of oil, and salt and fry them.t

Mussels Fried. — Put them into a saucepan, in which
there is as much boiling water as will cover them ;
when they are open, take them out and beard them ;
wash them in warm water, wipe them dry and flour
them ; fry them crisp, dish them up with butter
beaten up with the juice of lemon; fry some parsley
crisp and green, and throw it over them. J

To Slew Mussels.— Clean them and wash them from
the sand, in two or three waters ; put them into a
stew-p in, cover them close, and let them stew till all
the shells are opened ; then take them out one by one,
and to a quart of mussels put a pint of liquor and a
quarter of a pound of butter, rolled in a little flour;
when they are done enough, have some crumbs of

* 'French Family Cook.' f Idem.

£ Salmon's ' Family Dictionary.'

G

82 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

bread ready, and cover the bottom of your dish thick ;
grate half a nutmeg over them, and pour the mussels
and sauce all over the crumbs, and send them to
table.*

Mussel Pie. — Make a good paste, lay it all over the
dish ; wash your mussels clean in several waters, then
put them into a stew-pan, cover them, and let them
stew till they open ; pick them out, and see that there
be no crabs under the tongue ; put them into a sauce-
pan, with two or three blades of mace, strain the
liquor just enough to cover them, add a good piece of
butter, and a few crumbs of bread ; stew them a few
minutes ; fill your pie, cover it, and bake for half an
hour.f

To Pickle Mussels. — Take fresh mussels, wash them
very clean, and put them in a pot over the fire till
they open. Then take them out of their shells, pick
them clean, and lay them to cool. Then put their
liquor to some vinegar, whole pepper, ginger sliced
thin, and mace, setting it over the fire; when it is
scalding hot, put in the mussels, and let them stew a
little ; then pour out the pickle from them, and when
both are cold, put them into an earthen jug (jar ?) and
cork it up close; in two or three days they will be fit
to eat. J

Mussels dressed a la Provencale. — Wash the mussels
well several times, changing the water so as to cleanse
them thoroughly ; put them to dry in a saucepan over
a hot fire, till the shells open. Take off one valve of
the shell only. Put into a saucepan half a glass of
oil, parsley, chives, mushrooms, truffles, half a clove of

* 'The Lady's Companion,' vol. i. p. 149. t Ibid

J 'The Complete Cook,' by James Jenks, 1718.

MYTILID.E. MUSSEL. 83

garlic, all chopped very fine. Put it on the fire ;
moisten it with a glass of white wine, a spoonful of
broth, and half the quantity of liquor from the
mussels. Boil this sauce, and when it is nearly
reduced to half, add the mussels, with a spoonful of
gravy ; let the whole boil a few minutes ; then add a
spoonful of lemon-juice, pepper, and grated nutmeg,
then serve.*

Francatelli's Recipe for Scalloped Mussels. — Scald
and beard some dozen mussels ; strain the liquor into a
stew-pan, and add thereto two ounces of butter, mixed
or kneaded with two ounces of flour ; a little cream,
anchovy, nutmeg, and cayenne ; stir the sauce over the
fire to boil and reduce for ten minutes, then add a
coupleof yolksof eggs,a little lemon-juice, somechopped
parsley, and add the mussels. Stir all together over
the fire for a few minutes, and fill some scallop-shells
with this preparation ; cover them over with a thick
coating of fried bread-crumbs, place them on a baking-
sheet in the oven for a few minutes, and serve them
quite hot. They may also be served upon neatly-
shaped pieces of dry toast.

A Ragout of Mussels. — When the mussels are well
cleaned, stew them without water till they open, take
them from the shells, save the liquor ; put into a stew-
pan a piece of butter, with a few chopped mushrooms,
a little parsley, and a little grated lemon-peel ; stir
this ; put in some good gravy, with pepper and salt ;
thicken this with a little flour ; boil it up, put in the
mussels with some liquor, and serve hot.f

* • Dictionnaire General de la Cuisiue Francaise, Ancienne et Mo-
derne.'

f ' The Lady's Assistant.'

G 2

84 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLFSCA.

Another Ragout of Mussels. — Cleanse some mussels,
and put them into a stew-pan on a stove,, till they open.
Take them out of their shells, and keep their liquor ;
then blanch them in butter. Put some mushrooms in
a stew-pan, with a bunch of sweet herbs, and pepper ;
some veal gravy to moisten the whole; then stew it
on a slow fire. Your sauce being done, take off the
fat, and thicken it with cullis of veal and ham ; then
put in your mussels with some of their own liquor,
and let it do slowly, taking care that it does not boil ;
let it be relishing, and serve it up hot for a dainty
dish.*

To Boil Mussels (Truro recipe). — Place them in a
saucepan with very little water, as their own liquor
helps to boil them. As soon as the shells open take
out the fish, and wash them in a small quantity of
cold water (about a pint), with a lump of salt about
the size of a halfpenny. Open them and take out
the little crab if there is one, and cut out the hard
byssus.

Cullis of Mussels. — Stew them, and strain them ;
fry carrots, parsnips, parsley, basil, lemon, crumbs, a
dozen almonds ; moisten them with broth ; strain and
keep the broth for use.

Mussels may be served in the shells, after having
been boiled, as many persons prefer to pick the fish
out themselves, and eat them with cold butter.

The Neapolitans, as mentioned by Poli, eat mussels
raw and fried, besides making patties and sauces of
them.

('hilian Method of cooking Shell-fish. — A. hole is dug
in the ground, in which large smooth stones are laid,
* ' The Lady's Companion.'

AVICULID.E.— SEA-WING. 85

and upon them a fire is kindled. When they are suffi-
ciently heated, the ashes are cleared away, and shell-
fish are heaped upon the stones, and covered first with
leaves or straw, and then with earth. The fish thus
baked are exceedingly good and tender, and this mode
of cooking them is very superior to any other, as they
retain within the shell, all their own juiciness."* Meat
dressed in the same manner is most delicious.

Lithodomus lithophagus, a Mediterranean species,
which also belongs to the "Mytilidas," is generally eaten
in Spain, and is called Datil de mar. It is also much
esteemed as food on the eastern shores of the Adriatic,
and the Italian names for it are Dattolo di pietra
and Dattolo di mar.f Area Noe, Area barbata, and a
species of Pectunlulus are eaten in Italy and Spain.

Fam. AVICJJLIDM.
PINNA.— SEA- WING.

Pinna Pectinata Linnaeus. Sea-iving. — Shell
wedge-shaped, gaping at one end, and tapering to a
point at the other, equivalve, horn-colour; hinge, tooth-
less, straight, and long ; ligament, linear, strong and
elastic and internal, sometimes smooth, and at others
with delicate ribs which radiate from the beaks, which
are straight and pointed.

The Pinna is the largest of our British bivalves,
and specimens are found twelve inches long and seven
broad at the gaping end. Many pairs of this shell were

* Kiug's ' Adventures of the Beagle,' vol. i. p. 291.
t Faber's ' Fisheries of the Adriatic.'

86 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

found in the spring of 1862 on the beach at Dawlish,
some of them with the fish still alive in them ; but they
were all small, the size of the one figured. Other
localities mentioned by Forbes and Hanley are Salcomb
Bay (where a bed of these shells was discovered by
Montagu), Weymouth, all the Dorset coast, Milford
Haven, the Hebrides, Zetland, and in Ireland, off the
coasts of Londonderry, Antrim, Down, &c. ; and at
Youghal, where they are known by the name of "pow-
der-horns/' the fishermen bring in fine specimens from
the " Nymph Bank/'' Dr. Jeffreys was informed by
Mr. Spence Bate, that at Plymouth the trawlers call
the Pinnce, " caper-longers," which word is supposed
to be a corruption of cappa lunga, — the name they
bear in the Mediterranean ; and the familiarity of Ply-
mouth seamen with such Italian words is accounted for
by so many of our men-of-war having been at Naples.
They are also known in Italy by the following names : —
Nacherone, Madre-pema, Palostrega; and at Fiume,
Piede de caval. In I ranee they call them Jambonneaux;
in Spain, Nacre ; and in Germany, Stecmiischel.

The Pinnce live in sand and mud, with the small
end downwards, in an upright position, and attached
by a very strong byssus of silky thread. A small
species of crab lives frequently in the shell of the Pinna;
and the following is a quaint description given by Pliny
of the friendship of the Pinna and its little guest : —
" The Pinna is also of the tribe of shellfishes. It is
always found in muddy places, but never without a
companion, which they call pinnoteves or pinnophylax,
and which is a little shrimp, or in some places a crab, a
searcher for food. The pinna first gapes open, and, being
destitute of sight, exposes its body within to various little

AVICULID^. SEA- WING. 87

fishes, which come leaping by close to it, and being
unmolested grow so bold as to skip into its shell and
fill it full. The Pinnoteres, waiting for the opportunity,
gives notice to the Pinna by a gentle pinch ; upon
which, shutting its mouth, it kills whatever is within
the shell, and divides the spoil with its companion."*

Mr. Sayf says, that a small crab (a species of Pinno-
teres), which lives in the shell of the common American
oyster [Ostrea virginica) ,is much valued by oyster eaters
in the United States, and that in opening a large
quantity of oysters, these little crabs are collected apart,
and serve to gratify the palate of gourmands. They
are only seven-twentieths of an inch long, by two-fifths
wide.J

The byssus, or silky thread of the Pinna, is called by
the Sicilian fishermen, lana jpenna, and is manufactured
into a silken fabric. It was known to the ancients, and
called by them pinna-wool, and by the Tarentines lana
pesca, or fish-wool. St. Basil, Bishop of Cassarea, in
Cappadocia, mentions it in one of his homilies, saying,
e: Whence had the Pinna its gold-coloured wool, that
colour which is inimitable ? "§

Gibbon states that the Romans called the Pinna " the
silk-worm of the sea," and that a robe made from the
silk was the gift of a Roman Emperor to one of the
Satraps of Armenia.

In Aufrere's travels is a description of the mode of
collecting these shellfish by the Neapolitans, and of
the manufacture of different articles from the silk : —

* Pliny, ' Nat. Hist.' bk. ix. c. 42 (or 66 Tr. Bohn).

t ' Journ. Acad. Sc. Phil.' i. 68.

X ' Popular Hist. Brit. Crustacea.'

§ ' Stolberg's Travels,' vol. ii. p. 151, translated by Thomas Holcroft.

88 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLTJSCA.

" As soon as a pinna is discovered, an iron instrument,
called pemonico, is slowly let down to the ground over
the shell, which is then twisted round and drawn out.
When the fishermen have got a sufficient number of
them, the shell is opened, and the silk, called lana
penna 3 is cut off the animal, and, after being twice
washed in tepid water, once in soap and water, and
twice again in tepid water, is spread upon a table, and
suffered to become half dry in some cool and shady
place. Whilst it is yet moist, it is softly rubbed and
separated with the hand, and again spread upon the
table to dry ; and, when thoroughly dried, it is drawn
through a wide comb, and afterwards through a narrow
one. These combs are of bone, and resemble hair-
combs. The silk thus combed belongs to the common
sort, and is called extra dente ; but that which is des-
tined for finer work is again drawn through iron combs
or cards, called search. It is then spun with a distaff
and spindle, two or three threads of it being mixed
with one of silk, after which they knit, not only gloves,
stockings, and waistcoats, but even whole garments of
it. W T hen the piece is' finished it is washed in clean
water mixed with lemon-juice; after which it is gently
beaten between the hand, and finally smoothed with a
warm iron. The most beautiful are of a brown cin-
namon, and glossy gold colour. A pair of gloves made
of the Pinna silk may be seen in the British Museum ;
and in the International Exhibition some articles made
of it were exhibited in the Italian Court, viz., a
large shawl, gloves, and specimens of the thread in
skeins."

As an article of food, the Pinna is nearly as good as
the scallop, and Plutarch tells us that Matron, the

AVICULID^l. SEA-WING. 89

parodist, speaks of it as forming one of the dishes at
an Attic banquet, saying, —

" And pinnas sweet, and cockles fat were there,
Which the wave breeds beneath its weedy bed."

Indeed, if we may judge from the number of times
Athenaeus mentions it amongst the various eatable shell-
fishes, it formed a favourite article of food amongst the
ancients, aud was highly prized by them, as it is at
Naples in these days, where it is considered a recherche
morsel, and too expensive for the poor people to indulge
in. It is of greater value for its byssus, than for the
table.

Poli remarks that it rarely appears in the Neapolitan
markets. He says that it is cooked at Naples with
pepper, oil, and lemon-juice, and served with baked
prunes.

The large triangular-shaped Pinna radis may be
seen in the markets at Athens.

Pearls are found in the Pinna, as I have already
stated, and the Oriental pearls, in the Pearl-oyster,
Meleagrinamargaritifera, which belongs to the " Avicu-
lidas." According to Pliny, the island of Taprobane
(Ceylon) was most productive of pearls, and he con-
siders that the most valuable were those found in the
vicinity of Arabia, in the Persian Gulf. Chares of
Mytilene, in his seventh book of his " Histories of
Alexander," tells us that in the Indian Sea, and also
off the coast of Armenia, Persia, Susiana, and Babv-
lonia, a fish is caught very like an oyster, large aud
of oblong shape, containing within its shell flesh
which is plentiful, white, and very fragrant, and from
it the men pick out white bones, called by them pearls.
And of these they make necklaces and chains for the

90 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

hands arid feet, of which the Persians are very fond,
as are the Medes, and all Asiatics, esteeming them as
much more valuable than golden ornaments.* Occasion-
ally, they are called stones; and bones, by Greek Authors;
and Tertullian calls them maladies of shellfish and
warts — " concharum vitia et verrucas." Pliny statesf
that when pearls grow old they become thick and adhere
to the shell, from which, they can only be separated by
a file ; again, that pearls which have one surface flat
and the other spherical, opposite to the plane side, are
for that reason called tym'pania, or tambour-pearls,
tf quibus una tantum est facies, et ab ea rotunditas,
aversis planities, ob id tympania nominatur/' The
" tympana," or hand-drums of the ancients, were often
of a semi-globular shape, like the kettle-drums of the
present day. Shells which had pearls still adhering
to them were used as boxes for unguents.J Long
pear-shaped pearls, called elenchi, had their peculiar
value, resembling iu form the alabaster boxes which
were used for ointments. Earrings were invented by
the Roman ladies, called crotalia, or Castanet pendants,
from the pearls rattling as they knocked against each
other. § The story of Cleopatra swallowing the pearl
in order that she might say she had expended on a
single entertainment ten millions of sesterces, is too well
known to require repeating here; suffice it to say, that
Pliny informs us that before the time of Antony and
Cleopatra, Clodius, the son of the tragic actor ^Esopus,
had done the same at Rome ; " he, having dissolved in

* ' Atbenseus,' vol. i. p. 155.

t Ibid. vol. ii., bk. ix., p. 433.

J Pliny, ' Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. p. 432-

§ Ibid. vol. ii. bk. ix., p. 435.

AVICULHXE. SEA-WING. 91

vinegar (or at least attempted to do so), a pearl worth
about £8000, which he took from the earring of Csecilia
Metella " *. Pliny further adds, that by way of glorifi-
cation to his palate, Clodius iEsopus was desirous of
trying what was the taste of pearls, and as he found it
wonderfully pleasing, that he might not be the only
one to know it, he had a pearl set before each of his
guests for him to swallow. t

In the ' History of Banking/ by Mr. W. J. Lawson,
as quoted by Madame de Barrera, is an account of a
similar piece of ostentatious folly perpetrated in modern
times by the wealthy English merchant, Sir Thomas
Gresham. We read that "the Spanish Ambassador
to the English Court, having extolled the great riches
of the King his master, and of the grandees of his
master, before Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Gresham
who was present, told him that the Queen had subjects
who at one meal expended not only as much as the daily
revenues of his kingdom, but also of all his grandees;
and added, "This I will prove any day, and lay you a con-
siderable sum on the result." The Spanish Ambassador
soon afterwards came unexpectedly to the house of
Sir Thomas, and dined with him ; and finding only an
ordinary meal, said " Well, sir, you have lost your
wager." " Not at all," replied Sir Thomas, "and this
you shall presently see." He then pulled out a box from
his pocket and taking one of the largest and finest
eastern pearls from it exhibited it to the Ambassador,
and then ground it, and drank the powder in a glass
of wine to the health of the Queen. " My lord Am-
bassador," said Sir Thomas, " you know I have often

* Hor. ii. Sat. iii. 239.

f Pliuy, ' Nat. Hist.' vol. ii., bk. ix., chap. 59.

92 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

refused £15,000 for that pearl : have I lost or won ? u
" I yield the wager as lost," said the Ambassador,
"and I do not think there are four subjects in the
world who would do as much for their sovereign."

It was not unusual for the Romans to adorn their
horses and other favourite animals, with splendid
necklaces; and we are told that ' Incitatus/ the
favourite horse of the Emperor Caligula, wore a pearl
collar. The Roman ladies even wore pearls at night,
that in their sleep they might be conscious of the pos-
session of these valuable gems. Julius Csosar pro-
hibited the use of purple and pearls to all persons who
were not of a certain rank, and the latter also to un-
married women.

Marco Polo speaks of the pearl-fisheries of the Great
Province of " Maabar " (Ma'bar), the name given by
the Mahomedans in the 14th and 15th centuries to a
tract corresponding in a general way with what we
call the Coromandel Coast, and " that the king of that
state hath a very great receipt and treasure from his
dues upon those pearls." He gives a description of the
king, viz., as follows : — " Round his loins he has a piece
of fine cloth, round his neck a necklace entirely of
precious stones, rubies, sapphires and emeralds, and
the like of great value. He also wears, hanging in
Iront of his chest, from the neck downwards, a fine
silk thread, strung with 104 large pearls and rubies of
great price. The reason why he wears this cord of
104 great pearls and rubies, is (according to what
they tell), that every morning and evening he has to
say 104 prayers to his idols. Such is their religion
and custom, and thus did all the kings his ancestors
before him, and they bequeathed the string of pearls to

AVICULIBvE. SEA-WING. 93

him, that tie should do the like. The prayer consists
of these words, Pacatfta, Pacauta, Pacauta, repeated
104 times. No one is permitted to take out of the
kingdom a pearl weighing more than half a saggio,*
Unless he manages to do so secretly. This order has
been given because the king de«ires to reserve all
such to himself. Several times a year he sends a pro-
clamation through the realm, that if any one who
possesses a pearl or stone of great value w r ill bring it
to him, he will pay for this, twice as much as it cost."f
In a note to the above, Dr. Caldwell says, that the
word Pacauta was probably Bagavd or Pagavd the
Tamil form of the vocative Bhagavata, "Lord." The
Hindus believe the repetition of the name of God is
an act of adoration; Japa, as this act is called, makes
an essential part of the daily worship. No doubt the
number of prayers should have been 108 (not 104),
which is the mystic number among both Brahmans
and Buddhists.

From the twelfth to the sixteenth centuries, ex-
travagance in jewellery was carried to an unlimited
extent at the courts in Europe- ; and from the reign of
Francis I. to that of Louis XIII., the greater part of
the jewels worn were set with pearls, and these latter
were worn in preference to all other ornaments until
the death of Maria Theresa of Austria. ;£

The French call irregular-shaped pearls, Perles bar-

* The Venetian " saggio," a weight for precious substances, was
one-sixth of an ounce, and corresponded with the weight of the Roman
gold " solidus," which was one-sixth of a Roman ounce. Appendix K.
vol. ii. p. 472. Marco Polo.

f 'The Book of Ser Marco Polo,' translated and edited by Colonel
H. Yule, bk. iii. chap. xvii. vol. ii.

£ ' Gems and Jewels/ p. 27, by Madame de Barrera.

94 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

roques, and these "malformations were ingeniously
utilized by the fanciful taste of the cinque-cento
period.*

No doubt many of my readers will remember the
specimens exhibited in the loan collection at the South
Kensington Museum. One was a cinque-cento pen-
dant in the form of a siren ; the head, neck, and arms,
of white enamel, the body made of a very large pearl
barroque, and a fish-tail enamelled, and set with
rubies. It belonged to Colonel Guthrie, and is of fine
Italian work of the sixteenth century. Another, in
the possession of Messrs. Farrer, was a gold pendant
jewel in the form of a ship with three masts, a large
pearl barroque forming the hull, &c. The wedding
dress of Anne of Cleves was " a gown of rich cloth of
gold, embroidered with great flowers of large orient
pearls." The unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, pos-
sessed pearls which were considered the finest in
Europe, and these were purchased, in a most iniquitous
manner, by Queen Elizabeth, from the Earl of Moray,
for a third part of their value. Miss Strickland states
(in her f Lives of the Queens of Scotland/ pages 82
and 83, vol. vi.), that if anything further than the
letters of Drury and Throckmorton be required to
prove the confederacy between the English govern-
ment and the Earl of Moray, it will only be necessary
to expose the disgraceful fact of the traffic for Queen
Mary's costly parure of pearls, her own personal pro-
perty, which she had brought from France. A few
days before she effected her escape from Lochleven
Castle, the Regent sent these, with a choice selection of
her jewels, very secretly, to London, by his trusty

* • Precious Stones/ &c, by the Rev. C. W. King.

AVICULIDiE. SEA-WING. 95

agent, Sir Nicholas Elphinstone, who undertook to
negotiate their sale with the assistance of Throck-
morton. Queen Elizabeth had the first offer of them,
and the French Ambassador thus describes them : —
" There are six cordons of large pearls strung as pater-
nosters, but there are five and twenty separate from
the rest, much finer and larger than those which are
strung. These are, for the most part, like black
muscades " (a very rare and valuable variety of pearl,
with the deep purple colour and bloom of the mus-
catel grape).*

They were appraised by various merchants, but
Queen Elizabeth was determined to have them at the
sum named by the jeweller, though he would have
made his profit by selling them again. Others valued
them at three thousand pounds sterling ; some Italian
merchants at twelve thousand crowns; but twelve
thousand was the price Queen Elizabeth was allowed
to have them for, and Catherine de Medicis was quite
as eager to purchase these pearls as her good cousin
of England, knowing they were worth nearly double
the sum at which they had been valued in London,
having presented some of them herself to Mary. She
therefore used every endeavour to recover them, but
the French Ambassador wrote to inform her that it
was impossible to accomplish her desire of obtaining
the Queen of Scots* pearls, "for, as he had told her
from the first, they were intended for the gratification
of the Queen of England, who had been allowed to
purchase them at her own price, and they were now
in her hands." The possession of wealth and jewels is
not always a source of happiness or benefit to their
* See note, ' Lives of the Queens of Scotland,' vol. ii. p. 83.

96 EDIBLE BRITISH M0LLU3CA.

possessors, if we may judge from the above mentioned
fact in history, and indeed it is even more clearly
exemplified in the case of the eminent Mogul, who
died of hunger during a grievous famine, which de-
populated part of Guzerat. A large mausoleum or
Mahometan tomb was erected to his memory in the
suburbs of Cambay, with an inscription, telling us that
during this terrible scarcity, the deceased had offered
a measure of pearls for an equal quantity of grain, but
not being able to procure it, he died of hunger.*

In ' History and Mystery of Precious Stones/ re-
viewed in the ( Morning Post/ Feb. 4th, 1884, we read,
that pearls have for ages been significant of tears.
Queen Margaret Tudor, cousin of James IV. of Scot-
land, previous to the battle of Flodden Field, had
strong presentiments of the disastrous issue of that
conflict. She had fearful dreams, and in one vision
she beheld abundant pearls, the emblems of widow-
hood and mourning. A few nights before the assas-
sination of Henry IV. of France, his consort, Marie de
Medicis, dreamed that all the jewels in her crown were
changed into pearls, and she was told that it signified
she would weep greatly.

A pearl is described by Madame de Barrera as
nearly the size of a pigeon's egg, and pear-shaped ; it
weighed 250 carats, and was known as " La Pere-
arma," and belonged to the crown of Spain. It was
brought from Panama in 1560 by Don Diego de
Temes, who presented it to Philip IT. " It was then
valued at fourteen thousand ducats, but Freco, the
kino-'s jeweller, having seen it, said it might be worth
£14/)00, £30,000, £50,000, £100,000, as such a pearl

* Forbes' 'Oriental Memoirs,' vol. ii p. 18.

AVICULID.E. — SEA- WING. 97

was priceless." In ] 779 a pearl, which from its shape
was called the " Sleeping Lion/' was offered for sale
at St. Petersburg, by a Dutchman; it weighed 578
carats, and was bought in India for £4500.

The largest pearl known, I believe, is in the possession
of Mr. Beresford Hope ; it weighs three ounces, and is
two inches long, and two and a half inches in circum-
ference, and is set as a pendant : and the pearl necklace
of the Empress of the French is one of the finest known.
The Shah of Persia has a pearl valued at £60,000.*

In India rose-coloured pearls are much esteemed,
for red pearls (Lohitamukti) form one of the seven
precious objects which it was incumbent to use in the
adornment of Buddhistic reliquaries, and to distribute
at the building of a Dagopa.f

Marco Polo states, that in the island of " Chipangu "
(the kingdom of Japan) , the Chinese " Jih-pan-kive,"
rose-coloured pearls were abundant, and quite as
valuable as the white ones, and that there some of the
dead were buried and others were burnt, and that
when a body was burnt they put one of these rose-
coloured pearls in the mouth " for such is their
custom. "J These rose-coloured pearls were no doubt
those found in the conch shells.

The most productive pearl-fishery banks lie on the
west coast of Ceylon, between the eighth and ninth
degree of north latitude, near the level dreary beach of
Condatchy, Aripo, and Manaar.§ The other principal

* 'A Manual of Precious Stones and Antique Gems,' by Hodder
M. Westropp.

+ ' Nat. Hist, of Precious Stones,' by Koeppen as quoted in Yule's
' Marco Polo.'

X * The Book of Ser Marco Polo,' by Colonel Henry Yule, C.B.

§ ' Voyage of the Novara,' vol. i. pp. 37£— 381.

H

98 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

fisheries are those of the Bahrein Islands in the Persian
Gulf, Coromandel, Catifa in Arabia (which produced
the pearls purchased by Tavernier for £110,000), the
Algerine Coast, the Sooloo Islands, and, in the Western
world, the Bay of Panama and the Coast of Columbia,
which had formerly some very valuable pearl-fisheries,
for Seville alone is said to have imported thence up-
wards of 697 lbs. in the year 1587.

In Western Australia pearl-fishery grounds have
been discovered in the Torres Straits.

In 1864 the pearl-fishery of Ceylon suffered con-
siderably, owing to an irruption of the skate fish, which
was said to have killed the pearl-oysters ; and the loss
of revenue was calculated at £50,000.

A correspondent of the ■ Ceylon Observer/ says,
however, that the Ceylon pearl-fishery shows no sign of
languishing, and that a new bank had been fished,
the oysters from which are of a larger size than those
hitherto obtained from this fishery. The total amount
received by the government, in 1881, was £75,000
worth less than the largest fishery on record, viz., that
of 1814, which gave a return of £105,000 ; but in the
'Journal of the Society of Arts/ Aug. 12th, 1881, as
quoted from * Colonies and India/ it is said that the
pearl-fishery for that year had been one of the most
successful on record. The pearls from the oysters on
the banks situated off " Silavaturai/' on the western
coast of the island, have been famous for their purity,
shape, and colour, from time immemorial, and in these
attributes they far surpass those obtained from the
pearl-oysters of the Persian Gulf, although, as a rule,
inferior in size to the latter. . . . The pearl-oyster is
said to be migratory in its habits, and for one cause or

AVICULID^E. SEA-WING. 99

another some of the banks are for years deserted by
them. The following description, from the same source,
of the working of the fishery may be interesting. The
inspector having sent in his report to the effect that
there are sufficient pearl-oysters of mature age on the
banks, the government advertises a date for its com-
mencement. A large number of boat-owners, both
Cingalese and from the opposite coast of India, apply
to enrol their boats, and these probably number 150
to 180; they are divided into two fleets, sailing under
red and blue flags. They proceed to the banks, which
are some six miles from shore, on alternate days.
Each boat provides its own crew and divers, and has
on board a guard whose duty it is to see that the
oysters fished are not surreptitiously disposed of.
Each diver stands on a flat stone attached to the diving-
rope, and, after taking a long inspiration, closes the
nostrils with one hand, and descends on the stone to
the bottom, where he hastily collects as many oysters
in his basket as the time he is able to remain under

water admits of At a given signal all the

boats sail for the shore, where they are unloaded under
inspection, and the oysters placed in the government
Jcottoos (palisaded enclosures with cement floors).
Here the oysters are counted, and the proportion due
to the boat-owners for their services, is made over to
them. The remainder, which is the property of
government, is put up to auction and sold to the
highest bidder. The purchasers remove their lots to
private kottoos, where the oysters are left to de-
compose, to enable the pearls to be washed out.

In Ceylon, the fourth part of the pearls brought up
is the diver's share. In each boat there are ten divers,

h 2

100 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A..

each with an assistant. Before the divers descend a
number of quaint ceremonies are gone through with
incantations, both in the boats and on shore. So
superstitious are these men, that not one of their
number, Christian or idolater, would continue their
employment without the countenance of the sorcerer,
and in 1857 Government was compelled to pay these
impostors. The chief shark-charmer was a Roman
Catholic* The same authority further states that the
utmost depth in which a diver can remain safely is
about seventy feet. They can remain under water from
fifty to sixty seconds, and the diving is carried on from
five to six hours daily. Each of the ten divers can, in
the course of the day, bring up from 1000 to 4000 pearl-
shells. A single oyster contains sometimes thirty or
forty pearls, of which some may be worth a sovereign
on the spot. The small valueless seed-pearls are burnt,
and sold as pearl-lime to the wealthy Malays, to add to
the betel and cabbage-nuts which they chew. The
Ceylonese mix the lustreless pearls with grain, and feed
their poultry with them, in whose crops the pearls
regain their former brilliancy $fter a few minutes
grinding. The crops are slit up, and the pearls taken
out. It is said to be done by other Indian races, but
that the pearls lose weight. In India the priests of
Buddha keep up the strange belief as to the origin of
pearls, which I have mentioned elsewhere, and make
it a pretext for exacting what they term " Charity
oysters," from the divers and boatmen of their faith
for the use of Buddha, who, when propitiated, will
make the fish yield more pearls in future seasons. f

* ' Voyage of the Novara,' vol. i. p. 332.

f ' Household Words,' " My Pearl-fishiug Expedition," vol. iii. p. 80.

AVICULIDjE. — SEA-WING. 101

At the Bahrein fisheries the trade is in the hands of
the merchants, who bear hard on the divers, and even
those who make the greatest exertions in diving can
scarcely obtain a sufficiency of food.* The hardships
and sufferiDgs endured by the divers are very great.
After a long dive, we are told that the natives of the
Paamuto Islands may be seen squatting on the reefs
with blood gushing from the ears and nose, and become
quite blind for ten or twenty minutes.

Sir William Denison tells us, that the pearl-fishery
of Tuttukudi or Tutikorin, in the Gulf of Manaar, has
been rather productive of late years. The leading man
of the pearl-divers was presented to him, and he wore,
as a sort of badge of office, a gold shell with a pearl
inside. f

Mr. Edward Rae mentions having purchased some
fairly good pearls at Archangel, from the pearl-fisheries
on the Terski coast. J Pearls are occasionally found
by the men employed in Birmingham in making pearl-
buttons, in the mother-of-pearl shells imported for that
purpose. A few years since, it is stated that a small
number of shells were brought to Birmingham, which,
either by mistake, or through ignorance, had not been
cleared of the pearls at the fishery, and a considerable
number were found, and sold by the man who had
bought the shells for working into buttons. One pearl
sold for £40; the purchaser is believed to have re-sold
it for £160, and it was said to have been offered for sale
in Paris, afterwards, for £800. §

* McCullock's ' Commercial Dictionary.'

f 'Varieties of Vice-Kegal Life,' by Sir William Denison, K C. B.,
p. 199.

t ' The White Sea Peninsula,' p. 119.

§ 'Jewellery and Gilt Toys,' by J. S. Wright, in 'The Resources,

102 EDIBLE B1UTISH MOLLUSCA.

Pearls from Meleagrina margaritifera are used in
medicine by the Chinese, in the composition of pills
and powders, and, naturally, they are said to have
marvellous powers of cure, on account of the costliness
of the ingredients. The following is a remedy called
Pao-lmig-che, which is used in the treatment of small-
pox.

Tche-tcliong (red coral) ... 10 grammes.
,, ,, (ruby) .... 4 grammes.

Tchin-chou (fine pearls) . . 4 grammes.

Teou-pau-hiang (musk) ... 6 grammes.

Pe-tche-tse (bole earth) ... 3 grammes.

Reduce all these substances to powder and mix them
well, then, with gum and water, make them into a
paste, then divide and roll into small pills, and gild
them.*

The Pinna may be cooked in the following manner : —

Pinna Soup. — Take five or six pinnce, according to
their size, and after they have been well washed, put
them into a saucepan on a slow fire until the shells
open ; then take out the fish. Chop some parsley very
fine, and put it with a tablespoonful of oil or an ounce
of butter, into a saucepan, and fry until it becomes
brown. To this add a pint of water, and, when it boils,
put in your fish, with a little salt and pepper.

Sometimes vermicelli is boiled with it, when more
water must be added ; or take a slice or two of bread
nicely toasted, and, after cutting it up into small pieces,
put it into the soup before it is served.

Products, Industrial Hist, of Birmingham,' &c, edited by Samuel
Timmins.

* ' Essai sur la Pharmacie et la Matiere Medicale des Chinois, , par
J. 0. Desbeaux.

PECTINIDjE. SCALLOP. 103

Fried Pinnce like Cutlets. — Take half-a-dozen of these
shellfish, and, after well washing them, place them in
a saucepan over a slow fire until tliey open of their own
accord ; take out the fish from their shells, and place
them on a dish, covering them well with flour or bread-
crumbs. Put some oil or lard into a frying-pan, and,
when it begins to boil, add your fish, and fry them of
a bright yellow colour. The frying-pan should be gently
shaken all the time, so that the fish may not adhere
together, but be quite separate. Fried parsley may be
added just before serving up, and slices of lemon put
round the dish.

Fam. pectinhle.
pecten.— scallop.

Pecten Maximus, Linnaeus. Great Scallop. — Shell
suborbicular ; valves very dissimilar, the upper one
concave at the umbones ; the under valve very convex ;
strong ribs, fifteen or sixteen in number ; rather broad,
and distinctly striated; auricles large, nearly equal;
hinge without teeth; ligament internal, placed in a
triangular recess.

The great edible scallop, though generally distributed
in our seas, is only locally abundant. At Eastbourne
and Brighton numbers are brought in by the fishing-
boats, and in the spring, during the prevalence of the
easterly gales, live specimens may be found on the
beach at Dawlish. The London markets are supplied
from various parts of our coasts, but I am told that
tons of scallops and periwinkles are sent yearly from
Brading Harbour, in the Isle of Wight ; but the greatest

104 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

supply is from Holland. They are sold at 2s. per dozen,
and are chiefly sought after for the shell. There are
large scallop beds off the Isle of Man, and the name
for this shell in Manx is Raucan, or Roagan. At Vigo,
Pecten maximus is the constant food of all classes from
Christmas to Easter ; after which it is only eaten by
the very poor people, and there it is known by the
name of Beira. In Andalusia it is called Rufina, and
in Galicia, Vieiras and Avineiras.

The French call the scallops, Peignes, Coquilles de St.
Jacques, Grosille, Grand' -pelerine, Gqfiche, Paiourde, Ri-
carde or Ricardot;* and the name for them in German
is Jacobsmuschel, Pilgrimsniuschel, and Kammmuschel.
At Tarento the fishermen call this shell Concha di San
Dialogo,&Ti& consider it a great delicacy; and formerly
it grew so large there, that Horace says, " Peetinibus
patulis jactat se molle Tarentum/'t In other places it
is called Cappa di San Giacomo ; and, according to Poli,
Cozza di San Giacomo, by the Neapolitans, and Cappa
Santa, by the Venetians. In Sicily it is known by the
name of Pettenu. In Youghal, these mollusks are called
Kirkeens, or Kirkeen thraws ; and another Irish name for
them is Sligane-mury . In Scotland scallops are often
called clams, and are used as bait for the white-fish
lines ; but other shells are called clams, amongst them
is Pholas dactylus, which is generally used by us as
bait, though eaten in France ; J and in the Shetland Isles
the large Cyprina Islandica is the clam. A species of
Mya, eaten by the natives of the Zaire or Congo river,
is stated by Mr. Fitzmaurice to resemble what is usually
called the clam, in England; and at Dawlish, the Solen

* ' British Conchology,' vol. ii. p. 74. f Aufrere's ' Travels.'

1 ' Book for the Seaside,' p. 48.

PECTINID^. SCALLOP. 105

is called the Sand- clam. Lutraria maxima is called the
Great clam, as we have already seen. In America, Mya
arenaria is the soft clam, and Venus wercenaria the
hard clam, and it is from the shell of the latter that
the wampum, or Indian money, is made, although
other shells are used for the same purpose; the white
" wampum " being made sometimes from the Bahama
conch, or strombus. It is the token of peace and friend-
ship amongst the American Indians. The coloured
portion of the inside of Venus mercenaria — the clam
shell — is ground into oblong pieces, vary in g from one
quarter of an inch usually, to three quarters of an inch
in length, and of the diameter of a crow's quill. The
pieces are then strung together like beads, to the
number of about two dozen and a half to three dozen
on a string, and this is called a string of irampum. The
worth of luampum is regulated very much by its free-
dom from white and by the intensity of its blue or
purple. The manufacturers prepare two kinds, which
are of different value. According to their deepness of
blue, or freedom from white, is the estimation in which
the pieces and strings are held. Formerly the price
of a horse, a pack of beavers, or anything else, could be
estimated exactly in strings and pieces of wampum.
Belts are made of pieces of wampum strung together,
and it is believed that the Indians adapt and arrange
them in such a manner as to be significant like writing.
Belts of wampum are, therefore, mostly delivered at
treaties, and on great public occasions. In ' Flint
Chips/ Mr. Stevens mentions that Mr. Granville John
Penn, a descendant of William Penn, the founder of
Pennsylvania, had until quite recently in his posses-
sion, the belt of wampum, the sole title-deed of an

106 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

extensive transfer of land, delivered by the Lenni-
Senape Sachem Indians to William Penn, at the Great
Treaty, under the elm-tree at Shackamaxon, in 1682.
It was handed down for generations in the Penn family,
and was presented to the Historical Society of Phila-
delphia in 1857. It was composed of eight strings of
" wampum," formed of white and black beads, worked
upon leather thongs, and the whole made into a belt,
twenty-eight inches in length by five and a half inches
in breadth. The ground is of white beads, and the
pattern consists of three diagonal stripes of black beads,
and, in the centre, Penn is represented taking the hand
of the Indian Sachem, the former being the larger
figure of the two."*

The native money of New Britain consists of small
cowrie-shells strung on strips of cane — called in Duke
of York Island, Dewarra — measured in lengths. The
first length being from hand to hand across the chest,
with the arms extended ; the second length from centre
of breast to the hand, one arm extended ; the third
from the shoulder to the tip of the fingers along the
arm ; fourth, from the elbow to the tip of the fingers >
fifth, from the wrist to the tip of the fingers ; and sixth,
finger lengths. Fish are generally bought by their
length in Dewarra, unless they are too small. A large
pig will cost from thirty to forty lengths of the first
measure, and a small one, ten. The measurement of
the shell-money is the same in New Britain as in
Duke of York Island, though called by another name,
Taboo.f

The deep valves of Pecten maximus are used by

* < Flint Chips,' by Edward T. Stevens, pp. 460—462.
f * Wanderings in a Wild Country,' by Wilfrid Powell.

PECUNIAE. — SCALLOP. 107

fishermen as lamps for their huts, and, according to
Fuller, they were also made use of by the pilgrims in
Palestine as cups and dishes ; but I believe that the
real Pilgrim scallop is Pecten Jacobcens, which is found
in the Mediterranean, and is smaller, more convex, the
ribs more defined and angular. The scallop was also
the badge of the pilgrim, and the poet Bowles says : —

"He clad him in his pilgrim weeds,
With trusty statf in hand
And scallop shell, and took his way,
A wanderer through the land."

Again, in Marmion, we read : —

" The summoned Palmer came in place,
His sable cowl o'erhuug his face ;
In his black mantle was he clad,
With Peter's keys in cloth of red

On his broad shoulders wrought ;
The ' scallop shell ' his cap did deck ;
The crucifix around his neck

Was from Loretto brought;
His sandals were with travel tore,
Staff, budget, bottle, scrip he wore :
The faded palm-branch in his hand,
Showed pilgrim from the Holy Laud."

At the present day many distinguished families bear
scallop shells on their shields, showing that their
ancestors had made pilgrimages to the Holy Land, or
other distant shrines ; and Fuller says : —

" For the scallop shows a coat of arms,
That, of the bearer's line,
Some one in former days hath been
To Santiago's shrine."

The scallop shell may be seen in the arms of the
Duke of Bedford, the Earl of Jersey* (whose ancestor,

* i

The Noble and Gentle Men of England,' by E. P. Shirley, Esq.

108 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Sir Eichard de Villars, "assumed the coat of arms,
argent, on a cross gules, five escallops or," in the reign of
Edward I., as a badge for his services in the Crusades),
the Marquis Townshend, Lord Dacres, and many
others. An escallop argent, between two palm-
branches vert, is the crest of Bulliugham, of Lincoln-
shire ; and that of Bower, of Cloughton and Brid-
lington, Yorkshire, is an escallop argent.

The arms of Backenham Priory, Norfolk, founded
about 1146, by William de Albini, Earl of Arundel,
and Queen Adeliza, his wife, widow of King Henry L,
were argent, three escallops sable ; and the seal of the
Priory bears the figure of St. James as a pilgrim,
with the scallop shell in his hat, a pilgrim's staff in
one hand, and a scrip in the other.* Another old
Abbey seal, of which I have seen the impression, has
the figure of St. James (or Saint Jacques de la Hovre)
in his pilgrim's dress, his staff in one hand and a scrip
in the other, with a scallop shell on either side of the
figure. The inscription, unfortunately, I could not
read, as it was indistinct. The Abbey of Reading,
Berks, was under the patronage of St. James the
Great, and bore as arms, " azure, three escallops or."f
On many monumental slabs and tombs the scallop shell
appears; and in Melbourne Church, Derbyshire, in a
canopied recess in the chancel, is a recumbent figure
of a knight, or crusader, with mail and surcoat, with a
shield on his arm bearing three scallop shells, with
chevron between. The monument is much mutilated,
and it is not known to whom it belongs. Again, in
St. Clement's Church, Sandwich, is a slab with the

* Moule's « Heraldry of Fish,' p. 223.

t ' Glossary of Heraldry,' Parker, Oxford.

PECTINID.E. — SCALLOP. 109

date 1583, to the memory of " George Raw, gent.,
sometyme mayor and customer of Sandwic, and mar-
chant adventurer in London •" with a shield bearing
the arms, ermine on a chief (gules), two escallop
shells (or) ; crest, a dexter arm embowered in armuur
(sable), garnished (or), holding a scallop shell. How-
ever, the escallop in heraldry is borne not only as a
badge of pilgrimages, but by those who have made
long voyages, have gained great victories, or have had
important naval commands.*

It is curious to remark, that leaden coffins, orna-
mented with scallop shells, rings, and beaded pattern,
belonging to a much earlier period, have been dug up
from time to time on the sites of Roman cemeteries.
Mr. C. Roach Smith, in an interesting paper on
f Leaden Coffins/ in ' Journal of the Archaeological
Association/ vol. ii., mentions several. Two were
found at Colchester, and near one of them was an urn,
in which were two coins, one of Antoninus Pius, and
the other of Alexander Severus ; again, in Weever's
f Funeral Monuments/ mention is made of a similar
coffin (discovered in the parish of Stepney, Middlesex,
in the district known to occupy the site of one of the
cemeteries of Roman London), the upper part orna-
mented with scallop shells ; having at the head and
foot two jars ; on the sides a number of bottles of
glistening red earth, some of which were painted,
and also some glass phials. The chest, or coffin, con-
tained the body of a woman. Leaden coffins have been
found at York, and in a Roman tomb at Southfleet,
Kent, and other places, as well as in France; and

* 'Crests of Great Britain and Ireland/ vol. i. p. 525, by Fairbairn.

110 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

Mr. C. Roach Smith says, "that they may, most of
them, possibly be assigned to the Roman-British
period."

The scallop shell appears legitimately to have be-
longed to pilgrims to the Shrine of St. James of Com-
postella, as may be gleaned from the following legend
given by old Spanish writers : —

" The body of St. James, after he had been be-
headed by Herod Agrippa, was taken away by his dis-
ciples, carried to Joppa, and placed on board ship
(some say that this ship was of marble). The angels
miraculously conveyed the body of the saint, in the
ship without sails or oars, from Joppa to Galicia. It
passed the village of Bonzas, on the coast of Portugal,
on the day that a marriage had been celebrated there.
The bridegroom, with his friends, were amusing them-
selves on horseback on the sands, when his horse be-
came unmanageable, and plunged into the sea ; where-
upon the miraculous ship stopped in its voyage, and
presently the bridegroom emerged, horse and man,
close beside it. A conversation ensued between the
knight and the saint's disciples on board, in which
they apprised him that it was the saint who saved
him from a watery grave, and explained the Christian
religion to him. He believed, and was baptized there
and then, and immediately the ship resumed its
voyage, and the knight came galloping back over the
sea to rejoin his astonished friends. He told them all
that had happened, and they, too, were converted, and
the knight baptized his bride with his own hand.
Now, when the knight emerged from the sea, both
his dress and the trappings of his horse were
covered with scallop shells ; and, therefore, the

PECTINIM. — SCALLOP. ] 1 1

Galicians took the scallop sliell as tlie sign of St.
James."*

The port where the body of St. James was landed
was called Tria Flavia, now Padron.f In those
days there reigned over the country a certain queen
named " Lupa/' and she and her people were plunged
in wickedness and idolatry. Now, having come
to shore, they laid the body of the Apostle upon a
great stone, which became like wax, and, receiving the
body, closed around it. This was a sign that the
saint willed to remain there ; but the wicked queen
Lupa was displeased, and commanded that some
wild bulls should be harnessed to a car, and that the
body, with the self-formed tomb, should be placed on
it, hoping that it would be dragged to destruction.
But in this she was mistakeu, for the wild bulls, when
signed by the cross, became as docile as sheep, and
they drew the body of St. James straight into the
court of her palace. When queen Lupa beheld this
miracle, she was confounded, and she and all her
people became Christians, and she built a magnificent
Church to receive the sacred remains, and died in the
odour of sanctity. But then came the darkness and
ruin, which, during the invasion of the Barbarians,
overshadowed all Spain, and the body of the Apostle
was lost, and no one knew where to find it, until the
year 800. FlorezJ says, that a Galician peasant dis-
covered, in the ninth century, the spot in which was

* ' Pilgrims of the Middle Ages,' by the Rev. E. L. Cutts, M.A.
'Art Journal,' 1861.

f ' Sacred and Legendary Art,' 2 vols, by Mrs. Jameson.

J ' Historia Compostellaua,' lib. i. cap. ii. apud, ' Espana Sagrada/
tome xx.

11*2 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

deposited a marble sepulchre, containing the ashes of
St. James, owing to the appearing of certain preter-
natural lights in a forest ; but others say that the dis-
covery was made by Theodorier, Bishop of Tria Flavia,
about 814. A rude chapel, suitable to the poverty of
the Christians, was immediately built by Alphonso,
the Chaste, king of Leon, and in 876, his successor,
Alphonso III., erected, on the spot, a temple more
worthy of the majesty of the saint.* The shells of
Galicia, or scallops, belouged exclusively to the Com-
postella pilgrim, and the Popes Alexander III.,
Gregory IX., and Clement V., in their Bulls, granted a
faculty to the Archbishops of Compostella, to excom-
municate all who sold these shells to pilgrims anywhere
except in the city of Compostella. f

When the marriage of Edward I., king of England,
took place with Leonora, sister of Alonzo of Castile, a
protection to English pilgrims was stipulated for, but
they came in such numbers that they alarmed the
French, who threw difficulties in their way. In the
fifteenth century, Byruer mentions that 916 licences
were granted to make the pilgrimage to Santiago in
1428; in 1434 as many as 2460 were granted.^ The
name of " Jacobitas," or " Jacobipetas," was given to
Compostella pilgrims, and there was an hotel in Paris
on purpose for receiving them if they were bound to
St. James's shrine; but the revenues failing, it was

* ' Medii iEvi Kalendariutn,' &c, by R. J. Hampson, vol. ii. bk. ii.
p. 329.

f ' On Pilgrims' Signs and Tokens,' by C. Roach Smith. See note,
* Archaeological Journal,' vol. i. p. 202.

X See note, ' Pilgrims of the Middle Ages,' vol. vii. p. 308, ' Art
Journal,' 1861, by the Rev. E. L. Cutts.

PECTINIDiE. SCALLOP. 113

purchased by the Dominicans.* Besides its badge,
each pilgrimage had also its gathering cry, which the
pilgrims shouted out, as at grey of morn they slowly
crept through the town or hamlet where they had
passed the night, and Pope Calixtus says,f that the
Santiago pilgrims were accustomed, before dawn, at
the top of each town, to cry with a loud voice, " Dens
adjuva ! Sancte Jacobi \" " God help ! Santiago \"

It is stated that pilgrims used to present their scrips
and bourdons to their parish churches, and Coryatt saw
cockle, mussel-shells, beads, and other religious relics,
hung up over the door of a little chapel in a nunnery.
These were deposits and offerings made by pilgrims to
Compostella, when they returned and gave thanks.*

The Rev. E. L. Cutts states that shells have not
unfrequently been found in stone coffins, and are sup-
posed to be relics of the pilgrimage once taken by the
deceased to Compostella; and that when the grave of
Bishop Mayhew, who died in 1516, w 7 as opened some
years ago, in Hereford Cathedral, a common rough
hazel-wand, between four and five feet long, and as
thick as a rnan's finger, was found lying by his side,
and with it a few mussel and oyster shells.

St. James of Compostella is said to have performed
many miracles, and to have appeared no less than fifteen
times to the Spanish kings and princes, when some
great advantage always ensued ; for instance, one day
he put himself at the head of the troops of a king of
Spain, Ramira, king of Leon, and leading them against

* Fosbroke's 'British Monaehism,' p. 469.

f ' Sermones Bib. Pat.' ed. Bignis xv. 330; ' Pilgrims of the Middle
.Asjes ' (note).

X Fosbroke's ' British Monachism.'

I

Ill EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

the Moors, mounted on a white horse, the housings
charged with escallops, defeated those infidels. St.
James supported his people, by taking part in their
battles, down to a very late period, as Caro de Torres
mentions two engagements in which he cheered on the
squadrons of "Cortes" and " Pizarro" "with his sword
flashing lightning in the eyes of the Indians."* The
great Spanish military order of " Santiago de la Espada "
is supposed to have been instituted in memory of the
celebrated battle of Clavijo, the peculiar badge of which
order is a red cross, like a sword, charged with a white
scallop shell, and the motto " Rubet ensis sanguine
Arabum."f To this day you are told in Spain, that the
scallops found at Clavijo, were dropped there by St.
James, or Santiago, when he assisted the Spaniards to
kill 60,000 Moors in the year 997, and they are con-
sidered visible proofs for those who doubt the miracles
of this saint.

Other orders of knighthood used the scallop shell
as an ornament, viz., that of St. James of Holland, the
badge and collar being formed of escallops. It was
instituted in 1290 by Florian II., Comte de Hollande,
but it was abolished with the Roman Catholic Religion. J
Louis IX. of France, or St. Louis, as he was generally
called, instituted an order of knighthood, called the
"Ship and Escallop Shell," to induce the French nobility
to accompany him in his pilgrimage to the Holy Land ;
but it did not long survive its foundation. § He quitted

* « Ordenes Militares/ fol. 5. Note, Prescott's ' Ferdinand and
Isabella,' vol. i. p. 274.
f ' Heraldry of Fish.'

X ' Collection Historique de la Chevallerie,' par A. M. Perrot.
§ ' Heraldry of Fish.'

PECTINID.E. — SCALLOP. 115

Paris the 12 th June, 1248, to embark at Aigues-
Mortes, in Languedoc, a town which he had founded
that he might have a seaport on the Mediterranean.
He also embarked at that place on his unsuccessful
crusade in 1270, having assembled a fleet of 800 galleys,
and an army of 40,000 men.

Louis XI. of France, about 1469, instituted the order
of knighthood and honour of St. Michael, which, in
England, at least, was distinguished by the name of
" Order of the Cockle/'' (the common name in olden times
for the escallop of pilgrims being the cockle). The robes
were ornamented with a profusion of escallop shells.
Strutt gives the following description, from a manu-
script inventory, of the robes at Windsor Castle in the
reign of Henry VII. : " A mantel] of cloth of silver lined
with white satten, with escallop shells. Item, a hoode of
crymsin velvet, embraudered with escallop shelles, lined
with crymson satten" ( f Horda Angel-cynnan/ vol. iii,
p. 79).*

In 1.566, Charles IX. of France sent an ambassador,
Monsieur Eambullet, with the order of the " cockle,"
to the king consort, Lord Darnley, who received the
same in the chapel of the palace of Holyrood.f

The following description of the apostle St. James,
patron of Spain, given by Bernard Picart, may not be
uninteresting to some of my readers. He says St.
James, patron of all Spain, has rested for these 900
years past in the Metropolitan Church of Compostella.
The image of this blessed apostle is upon the high

* ' Medii Mvi Kalendarium,' by R. T. Hampson, vol. i. bk. ii.
pp. 356, 357.

t ' History of the Reformation of Religion in Scotland,' by John
Knox.

I 2

]1() EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

altar : it is a small wooden bust, with fortv or fiftv
white tapers constantly burning before it. Pilgrims
kiss it three times, and put their hats upon the head
of it, with abundance of respect and devotion. There
are thirty silver lamps always burning in the church,
and six large silver candlesticks five feet high, which
were given by Philip III. There are five platforms
of large freestones, for walking all round the church, and
above it is another of the same kind, where the pilgrims
ascend and fix some remnant of their clothes to a stone
cross, which is erected thereon. They likewise per-
form another ceremony as singular as this. They pass
under this cross three times, through such a small hole
that they are obliged to slide through with their breasts
against the pavement, so that such as are never so little
too fat must suffer severely, and yet through they must
go if they will obtain the indulgence thereto affixed.
This is the strait gate of the gospel, through which
the pilgrims enter into the high-road of salvation. Some
who had forgotten to pass under the stone cross have
gone back five hundred leagues to perform this cere-
mony.* Mr. Street, in his l Gothic Architecture in
Spain/ states that even in that country, the old belief of
the power of the bones of St. James of Compostella to
work miracles appear now practically to have died out,
and that there are no longer great pilgrimages to his
shrine. However, at Santiago de Compostella, he sawcme
professional pilgrim with his rags covered with scallop
shells, whom he had previously seen begging at Zara-
goza; and in one of the Plazas at Santiago an old woman
was selling scallop shells. The doors in Toledo are
studded with many and fanciful forms of door-nails, of
* ' Religious Ceremonies,' by Picart, p. 432.

PECTINID^. — SCALLOP. 117

very quaint and beautiful shapes, and, occasionally, they
have reference to the object or history of the building ;
for instance, any building in any way connected with
Santiago has the nails in the form of scallop shells.*
The custom of bearing scallop shells as a badge of
pilgrimage, is more widely spread than is usually sup-
posed, for Sir Rutherford Alcock mentions their use on
the sleeves of many of the Japanese pilgrims to the
Cone of Fusiyama, in the island of Japan. In China,
the valves of Pecten Japonicus are used as small shovels.
Shells were used by the Romans to ornament their
dwellings, and the " Fountain of Shells/' described in
Sir William Gell's ' Pompeiana/ was decorated with
the Tyrian murex and the scallop. Mr. Damon tells us
that there is still standing, in a villa at Pompeii, a
fountain decorated with the shells of the Mediterranean,
one species of which, viz., Murex Brandaris, retains
its colour and general freshness, and is not to be dis-
tinguished from living examples. In an interesting
paper on a ' Collection of recent shells discovered among
the ruins of Pompeii, and preserved in the Museo
Borbonico at Naples/ published in the l Geological
Magazine/ vol iv. No. 7, July, 1867, Mr. Damon calls
our attention to the following, and says, that " Among
the many singular discoveries made in the ruins of
Pompeii, and deposited in the Museo Borbonico, in the
city of Naples, are a variety of shells, principally species
now found in the Mediterranean Sea, amongst them
Pecten Jacobceus, and so far of interest as an illustration
of the persistency of certain known species within the
historic period, no difference whatever being observable
between the disinterred, and living specimens. On a
* • A Summer in Spain,' by Mrs. Ramsey, p. 102.

118 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

close examination I observed, besides those from the
neighbouring seas, species from distant countries, for
example, Conns textiles. Triton femorale, Meleagrina
mavgaritifera (Pearl- Oyster), species only found in the
Indian and Eastern Seas. I think, therefore, that this
may be regarded as part of a Natural History collection.
Assuming the truth of this conjecture, its antiquity is
without precedent. Did the original proprietor form
one of a Natural History Society at Pompeii, of which
the distinguished Naturalist, Pliny, who perished at
Pompeii, was a member ? It would also be curious, in
these days of research for priority of names, to know
how they were described. Such a discovery might
disturb existing nomenclature, and increase the per-
plexity already felt in naming collections. But laying
aside fanciful conjectures, the collection is further
instructive from the condition and perfect preservation
in which the specimens are found, after an interment
of nearly 1800 years."

The scallop is figured on the coins of Saguntum,
which are of Phoenician time, the dolphin being on one
side, with the letters s.a.g. w. under, and the scallop
on the reverse ; and Florez, in his f Medallas de Espana/
Parte 2, 1728, says of these coins, "These (the dol-
phin and the scallop shell) allude to Neptune and
Venus, for as the dolphin is sacred to Neptune, so is
the shell to Venus,* as the daughter of the sea, and
also for the pearls it engenders, applied to the adorn-
ment of women. This shell is most appropriate for
the impress of a maritime city, from the utility eu closed
within it, and its application to diverse uses, either from
its seed for jewels, or as a delicacy for the table, for the

* ' Faveaa concha Cypria vecta fcua,' Tibullus, lib. iii. El. 3, &c.

PECTINID.E. SCALLOP. 119

precious tints with which it is coloured, for its use as a
medicine, and for ostentation in virtue of its ornamental
pearls."

Real scallop shells are used in the baptismal service
for pouring water over the child, though the shell is
usually of silver gilt, and in private baptism a wooden
shell is frequently adopted. " Baptismal shells/' are
mentioned in a list of the ornaments of the church in
the fifteenth century, and they are still used in some
churches.

The following are a few recipes for cooking the
scallop : —

To dress Scallops. — Wash them six or seven times
in clean water, then set them on the fire to stew in
their own liquor ; take the fish and beard them very
clean, let the liquor settle, and strain it off, and take
warm milk, and wash the fish very well ; then take the
liquor, some good gravy, and crumbs of bread; set it
on the fire, and when the bread is a little stewed, take
a quarter of a pound of butter, and roll it in fine flour
to thicken it ; then take an anchovy, a little mace and
nutmeg ; put in your fish and boil it half a dozen times,
and serve it up." *

" To stew Scallops — Boil them very well in salt and
water ; then take them out and stew them in a little of
their own liquor, a glass of white wine, and a little
vinegar ; add some grated bread-crumbs, and the
yolks of two or three hard eggs minced small ; stew
all together till they are sufficiently done ; then add a
large spoonful of essence of anchovy, and a good piece
of butter rolled in flour ; or stew very gradually in a
rich white sauce, with thick cream, until quite hot,

* From an old MS. Book.— C. C. W,

120 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLITSCA.

without being allowed to boil, and serve with sip-
pets." *

" To cook Scallops. — Clean them from the shell ; take
off the beards, as also the black marks they bear ; then
cut them into four pieces. Fry some bread-crumbs
with butter, pepper, and salt, to a light brown colour ;
then throw in your scallops, and fry all together for
about three minntes and a half, taking care to shake the
frying-pan, all the time. Last of all, press them tight
into shells or a dish, and brown them with a sala-
mander, and send them to table/"f

"Pickled Scallops. — One gallon of scallops drained
from the liquor ; put them into a bowl of salt and
water, take immediately out ; measure the liquor and
take as much vinegar as liquor ; a tablespoonful of
peppercorns, one of cloves, one of salt, a small tea-
spoonful of mace, boil them about three minutes, pour
on the,, liquor after it has boiled five minutes ; cover,
and let stand.^J

"Scallops. — American Recipe. — The heart is the only
part used. If you buy them in the shell, boil and
take out the hearts. Those sold in the markets are
generally ready for frying or stewing. Dip them in
beaten egg, then in cracker- crumbs (or bread-crumbs),
and fry in hot lard."§

Pecten Operculars, Linnaeus. Lid Scallop. —
Shell spherical ; valves convex, of nearly equal dimen-
sions, rather strong; ribs, eighteen or twenty in
number, finely striated, both longitudinally and trans-

* Murray's 'Modern Cookery Book.'

f « A Man Cook.' See ' Field,' Feb. 20, 186 L

X ' Every Day's Needs.'

§ ' Common Sense in the Household,' by Marion Harland.

PECUNIAE. SCALLOP. 121

versely ; auricles nearly the same size; ligament in-
ternal ; hinge without teeth.

This is the common scallop of the people, and much
smaller than the " Great scallop," also subject to
greater variety of colour. Specimens are found quite
white, with a dark red line on the summit of each of
the radiated ribs (var. lineatus), also brown, yellow,
speckled white and brown, purplish-pink, and orange.
The specimen figured was dredged up off the Parson
and Clerk rocks at Dawlish, and at times there may
be gathered basketfuls on the beach between that
town, and the mouth of the Exe. The shells are much
used in ornamental work ; and pretty baskets, pin-
cushions, needle-books, &c, are made from the beauti-
ful variegated valves.

The scallop may be called the butterfly of the ocean,
from its power of swimming or flying rapidly through
the water. This was observed by Pliny, who says that
the scallop is able to dart above the surface of the
water, just like an arrow.* By some this power is
supposed to be caused by the rapid opening and shut-
ting of the valves, but Mr. Gosse states that, after
carefully watching the habits of a Pecten, which he
kept for some days in a glass phial of sea-water, he
discovered that the flitting motion was performed by
forcing jets of water through the compressed edges of
the mantle. He says, " When the Pecten is about to
leap, it draws in as much water as it can contain with-
in the mantle, while the lips are held firmly in contact.
At this instant the united edges of the lips are slightly
drawn inward; and this action gives sure warning of
the coming leap. The moment after this is observed,
* PKdv, 'Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. ch. 45 (29).

122 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

the animal, doubtless by muscular contraction, exerts
a strong force upon the contained water, while it re-
laxes the forced contact of the lips at any point of the
circumference, according to its pleasure. The result
is, the forcible ejection of a jet of water from that
point, which, by the resilience of its impact upon the
surrounding fluid, throws the animal in the opposite
direction, with a force proportioned to that of the jet
d'eau" Again, Mr. Gosse adds, " That the Pecten
widely opens and forcibly closes its valves if left un-
covered by the water, is, doubtless, correct. I have seen
my specimen perform such an action, and perhaps it
might by such means jerk itself from place to
place, with considerable agility. But I do not
think so rude a mode of progression could enable
it to select the direction of its leaps, which, under
water, appears to me to be determined with so much
precision."*

Scallops are found pretty generally distributed in
all seas, and are much sought after for food. At
Weymouth, the average produce of the trawlers is
five bushels of scallops per week. They have been
sold at two-pence per hundred, 700 going to the
bushel ;f but they appear to have become scarcer
lately, if one may judge by the price at which they are
now sold, viz., four-pence a dozen, and two-pence per
dozen for the shells, without the fish, for making
shell ornaments. The fishermen suppose that they are
taken in the greatest numbers after a fall of snow. In
Cornwall they are called Frills, or Queens ; on the
Dorset coast, Squinns, and in the north of France,

* 'Devonshire Coast,' by P. H. Oosse, pp. 50, 52.
f ' A Year at the Shore,' by P. H. Gosse, p. 25.

PECTINIDiE. SCALLOP. 123

Vanneau, or Olivette ;* and in the south of Ireland the
peasantry call them Closheens. The Spanish names for
Pecten opercularis are Volandeiras, Xels, or Xelets.
Pecten varius is sent in quantities from the depart-
ment of Charente Inferieure to the markets at
Bordeaux, and is there called la Petite palourde,f and
in the north of France Petite vanne ; and, according to
Poli, it is the Pellerinella of the Neapolitans, and the
Ganestrelli di mare of the Venetians. In Spain it has
many names, viz., Zamorinas, Zamburiiias, Andorrinas,
Golondrinas, and Bomera, and is used as food, and
I have seen quantities in the market at Palm a,
Majorca.

To fry Scallops, — Wash the shells well in clean
water, then put them into a saucepan over a slow fire
until they are open ; then take out the fish, take off
the beards, and place them on a dish, covering them
well with bread-crumbs or flour, and add a little
pepper. Then put some oil, lard, or butter into a fry-
ing-pan, and when it begins to boil, put in the scallops,
and fry them till they are well browned. Shake the
fryiug-pan occasionally, to prevent their mixing to-
gether.

Soyer, in his ' Menagere/ gives the following recipe :
" Escallop is exceedingly fine ; it should be kept in
salt and water some time, to free it from sand. When
opened, remove all the beard, and use only the white,
red, and black parts. It may be cooked like oysters,
and is excellent with matelote sauce."

In Francatelli's ' Cook's Guide/ is a recipe for oyster
soup ; but he adds that a good soup may be made in

* • British Conchology,' vol. ii. p. 60.

f ' Faune Conchyliologique Marine,' par le Docteur Paul Fischer.

1;J4 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

the same manner, substituting scallops, instead of
oysters, and I shall therefore giv T e it.

" Oyster Soup (Scallop Soup, No. 183). — Scald, drain,
wash, and beard four dozen oysters (or scallops), re-
serving their liquor in a pan. Put four ounces of butter
into a stew-pan, to barely dissolve over the fire ; mix
in four ounces of flour ; moisten with a pint and a half
of good white stock, or milk; season with nutmeg, a
pinch of cayenne, and a teaspoonful of anchovy ; add
half a pint of cream ; stir over the fire for a quarter of
an hour's gentle boiling, and then, having cut the
oysters (or scallops), each into halves, pour the hot
soup over them in the tureen."

" To cook Scallops, or e Leitrigens' Donegal fashion. —
Place them on a gridiron in the shells, with a piece of
lighted turf-coal placed on the upper shell ; when
cooked, eat them with butter and pepper."

Grwillim, in his ' Heraldry/ says that (according to
Dioscorides) the scallop is "engendered of the dew and
the air, and hath no blood at all in itself; notwith-
standing in man's body (of any other food) it turneth
soonest into blood," and adds, " the eating of this fish
raw is said to cure surfeit."

Fam. OSTREAD^].

OSTREA.— OYSTER.

Ostrea Eddlis, Linnaeus. Edible Oyster. — Shell
nearly round, though variously shaped, inequivalve;
the upper valve flat, or nearly so, with scales or laminas
of a yellowish-brown ; the lower valve convex, and
foliaceous, of a pale pinkish-white, with streaks of

OSTREADJi. OYSTER. 125

purplish-pink ; transversely striated. Hinge tooth-
less ; ligament internal, of an olivaceous-brown ;
beaks small. The interior of the shell white and
polished, sometimes the purplish-pink colour of the
margins showing through.

The edible oyster of Great Britain is supposed to be
superior to those of other European countries, and to
attain to a greater degree of perfection on our coasts ;
and it was much valued by the Romans, who trans-
planted numbers from our shores, and placed them in
artificial beds in the Lucrine Lake. Sergius Orata is
said to have first invented the artificial oyster-beds,
" not for the gratification of gluttony, but of avarice, as
he contrived to make a large income by this exercise
of his ingenuity/'* M. Dabry de Thersant in a
number of the ' China Review/ as quoted in the
1 Flight of the Lapwing/ states, that artificial oyster-
beds were formed in China long before they are known
to have existed amongst the Romans, and, while in
Europe essays and pamphlets are being written on the
theory of the subject, the practical Chinese have been
obtaining good results for the last 1800 years, notwith-
standing the fact that they have no clear ideas as to the
nature of the oyster or its means of reproduction.

Apicius first discovered the art of preserving oysters
fresh for a considerable time, and sent some from Italy
to the Emperor Trajan, while he was on an expedition
against the Parthians, which were found on their arrival
to be as good as on the day they were gathered.f This
mode may possibly have been the same as that which
is practised in Italy at the present day, where, as Poli

* Pliny, 'Nat, Hist,' vol. ii. bk. ix. chap. 79.
f Daniel's ' Rural Sports,' vol. iv. p. 194.

126 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

tells us, they are carried from Tarentuni to Naples, in
bags, tightly packed with snow, which not only by its
coolness preserves them, but also, by preventiog them
from opening their bivalves, enables them to retain in
the shells sufficient moisture to preserve their lives for
a long period.*

There were other places from whence oysters were
procured, and Mucianus speaks with rapture of those
found at Cyzicus, a town in Asia Minor, f on the shores
of the Sea of Marmora, the ruins now called by the
Turks, Bal Kiz. He describes them as larger than
those of Lake Lucrinus ; fresher than those of the
British coasts ; sweeter than those of Medulas (the dis-
trict in the vicinity of Bordeaux, now called Medoc) ;
more tasty than those of Ephesus ; more plump than
those of Lucus ; less slimy than those of Coryphas (a
town of Mysia, opposite Lesbos) ; more delicate than
those of Istria, and whiter than those of Circeii (a town
of Latium). Pliny mentions that according to the his-
torians of Alexander's expedition, oysters were found
in the Indian Sea a foot in diameter, J and Sir James
E. Tennent unexpectedly attested the correctness of
this statement, as at Kottiar, near Trincomalee, enor-
mous specimens of the edible oysters were brought to
the rest-house. One shell measured more than eleven
inches in length, by half as many broad. §

The Greeks preferred the oysters of Abydos, and

Archestratus, in his ' Gastronomy/ says : —

" jEiius has mussels fine ; Abydus too
Is famous for its oysters ; Parium produces

* Poli, 'Testacea Utriusque Sicilian.'

f Pliny, ' Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. bk. xxxii. ch. 21. J Ibid.

§ See note, ' Nat. Hist, of Ceylon,' p. 371.

OSTREAD.E. OYSTER. 127

Crabs, the bears of the sea, and Mitvlene periwinkles;

Ambracia in all kinds of fish abounds,

And the boar-fish sends forth ; and in its narrow strait

Messene cherishes the largest cockles.

In Ephesus you shall catch chemae, which are not bad,

And Chalcedon will give you oysters."*

Mr. Sharon Turner, in his ' History of the Anglo-
Saxons from the Earliest Period to the Norman Con-
quest/ tells us that in the dialogues composed by Elfric
to instruct the Anglo-Saxon youths in the Latin lan-
guage, which are yet preserved to us in the MSS. in the
Cotton Library, there is some curious information con-
cerniug the manners and trade of our ancestors. In
one colloquy the fisherman is asked, "What do you
take in the sea V — " Herrings, and salmons, porpoises,
sturgeons, oysters, and crabs, muscles, winkles, cockles,
flounders, plaice, lobsters, and such like.""

Great Britain is still celebrated for its oysters, and
large artificial beds are formed for the better rearing
and breeding of these shell-fish, besides the natural
oyster-beds which are found on many parts of our
coasts. The artificial beds require much labour to
keep them in order, and free from shells and rubbish.
The mussel is an enemy to the oyster, as I have already
observed, as it causes mud to collect ; and the star-fish
and whelk feed upon them, as do crabs, shrimps, and
other shell-fishes. Dr. Paul Fischer states that the
oyster-beds at Arcachon have suffered considerably
from the havoc caused by Murex erinaceus, which has
appeared in great numbers within the last few years ;
and it has been suggested by the Commissaire de
l'lnscription Maritime, at He d'Oleron, that when laying

* Athenseus ' Peipnosophists,' vol. i. bk. iii. p. 154.

128 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

down a fresh supply of young oysters on the beds, a
certain quantity should be provided for their enemies
to feed upon, and thus save the others.* Incessant
war is waged against the dog-whelk, but the numbers
do not decrease. It is known by the name of Cormaillot,
or Perceur. Again, cold weather has a most pernicious
effect upon the spat, for if the water is not warm
enough the spat dies. Oysters will not even spawn if
the weather is too cold. Some of our principal beds
are those of Whitstable, Rochester, Colchester, Milton,
Faversham, Queenborough, and Burnham. Colchester
has been celebrated for its oysters from a remote period,
and they were deemed an appropriate present from th 3
authorities of the town to ministers of state, and other
eminent persons. We hear of their having been sent,
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, to Leicester and Wal-
singham.f At the annual Colchester Oyster Feast,
held in the Town-hall, October, 1862, Mr. Miller, M.P.,
mentioned that Mr. Goody, clerk to the Colne Fishery
Company, with himself and a few other gentlemen, had
appealed to the Treasury, because it was apprehended
that Belgium, to which a large number of oysters are
sent, was about to impose a duty which would inflict a
serious injury upon the town. However, it was found
from the interview that there was no immediate pro-
spect of the anticipated danger, and a treaty was con-
cluded with Belgium, in which a special reservation
had been made in respect to oysters. J The oysters
sent to Belgium are fattened in the Ostend beds, and
then called " Ostend oysters." They are very plump

* ' Report on Oyster Fisheries of France,' by Major Hayes, 1878.
f Cromwell's ' History of Colchester,' vol. ii.
X The • Times,' October, 1862.

0STREADJ3. — OYSTER. 129

and small, and were at one time highly thought of by
the oyster-eaters in Paris ; but I believe that they have
nearly disappeared from the Parisian markets (except
the green-bearded oysters, such as are found in the
River Crouch, which are all sent to Paris, and known
there as Les huitres verts d'Ostend)* and are now
seat to Berlin, St. Petersburg, and Moscow.f Their
flavour is certainly quite equal to our "natives," at
least I thought so, and the shells appeared thinner.
Oysters, mussels, and periwinkles, with shrimps, are the
fisheries which engage a good number of fishermen
at Leigh, near Southend. The Leigh shore has been
found particularly well adapted to grow and fatten
oysters. £

Whitstable was a fishing-town of note in the reicm
of Henry YIIL, and was called in ancient records
" Northwood." Loland, in his l Itinerary/ thus de-
scribes it: — "Whitstable is upward junto Kent, a ii
miles or more beyond Faversham, on the same shore,
a great fisher-towne of one paroche, belongino- to
Plaze College, in Essex, and yt standeth on the
se-shore. Ther about they dragge for oysters."

The dredgers of Whitstable do not trust entirely to
the natural resources of their oyster-beds, but purchase
from the Essex coast what is called the brood, which
is the spat in its second stage. They also purchase
oysters from Ireland, France, and Holland, and lay
them down on the Whitstable beds. The following

o

interesting account of the Whitstable beds appeared

* ' Report on Oyster Fisheries,' 1876 .

+ " L'Alimentation de Paris," "Les Halles Centrales," f Revue ties
Deux Mondes,' 15 Juin, 1868, tome soixante-quinzieine.

+ ' Visits to the Sea-coast; the Shipwrecked Jkiariner/ vol. xii.

130 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

in ' Macmillan's Magazine/ No. 36, October, 1862: —
u The brood is carefully laid down in the oyster-beds
off Whitstable, and allowed to grow for three, perhaps
four years. The oysters in different stages are marked
off by means of long poles, so that the shell-fish farm
is divided into separate fields, each being in a particular
stage of growth. At the time when the oysters are
lifted for the London or other markets, they are mea-
sured by being thrown against a wire grating, and all
those under a certain size are thrown again into the
water. To give an idea of the business done in the
oyster trade, it may be stated that in 1860 the Whit-
stable men took as mucli as £50,000, for native oysters
alone, which, after deducting the cost of the brood,
would still leave a handsome profit." There are exten-
sive fisheries opposite Milton, those of the Cheney Rock.
We are told that in a single season, more than 50,000
bushels of " natives 9i were sent from this one fishery to
London.* Mr. Frank Buckland defined a " native " as
being a thoroughbred oyster, and its geographical
limits would be at and about the mouth of the Thames,
from Harwich on the north, down to Margate on the
south, and it is indigenous to the soil, in contradistinc-
tion to the Irish, Milford, and other oysters, which come
from different parts of the world. f

The " Milton natives " bear the bell, or may be said
to be the pearls among British oysters. King John
granted these fisheries to the Abbot of Faversham, in
whose hands they remained till the dissolution, and
they have been dredged from the earliest times by a

* Murray's ' Handbook, Kent and Sussex/ p. 64.
f ' Report on Oyster Fish- ries,' 1876.

OSTREAD^]. OYSTER. 131

company of fishermen, ruled, like those of Faversham,
by certain ancient customs and bye-laws.*

Jersey oysters are brought over and bedded in the
Southampton water. They are described as being
small, but of superior flavour, and are conveyed long
distances to be laid down, naturalized, and afterwards
sold as natives. They are also remarkable for their
saline flavour when first brought over, but it goes
off after they have been bedded some time at South -
ampton.f In 1876 Jersey oysters were very scarce, and
the beds in a bad condition. It is said that formerly
there were fine oyster-beds between Portsmouth, Hay-
ling, and the Isle of Wight ; and recently a breeding
place on the French system has been established at
Hayling Island, and there is considerable trade carried
on in oysters.

There are extensive oyster-beds in the Medina and
Newtown rivers, in the Isle of Wight, and a large
quantity were bred in 1880, and were in good condition
up to 1881. J The manor of Osborne is said to derive
its old name of Austerbourne, or Oysterbourne, from
the oyster-beds of the Medina. § A bed of oysters was
discovered off Eastbourne, some years since, the fish
being of a very superior and delicate flavour. The price
was Is. per hundred, but it rose to 2s.; and another
large bed, which was valued at £5000, was found about
three miles off the mouth of Dartmouth harbour, about
the same time.

W r e read, in Britton's ' History of Dorset/ that there

* Murray's { Handbook, Kent and Sussex.'

f ' Field,' Note by the Editor.

X l Oyster Culture and Oyster Fisheries,' by Professor Hubreolit.

§ ' A Guide to the Isle of Wight,' by the Rev. Edward Venables, M.A.

~ K i

132 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

was an oyster-fishery in Poole Bay, and that though
the town of Poole claimed much dominion in this bay,
the Lord of Corfe Castle had a power and jurisdiction,
as Admiral by Water and Land, on the seas rouud the
Isle of Purbeck, on the high seas, and throughout the
whole island, in pursuance of a grant by Queen Eliza-
beth to Sir Christopher Hatton. The fishermen of
Wareham, upon paying a small fine to the Lord of Corfe
Castle, have a right also to fish in these waters. A
considerable oyster-fishery was carried on at Poole,
which supplied the London markets for two months
every season, and no less than forty sloops aud boats
were employed, during which time the receipts
were between £6000 and £7000. The last day's
catching, by a prescriptive regulation, was thrown into
the channels in the harbour, where the oysters were
left to fatten, and supply the town and neighbouring
county during the winter. In digging a dock at Ham,
opposite the harbour, in 1747, a large bed of oyster-
shells was found, six feet and a half thick, regularly
piled up. This bed had been formed by the fishermen,
who deposited the shells after they had taken out the
fish for pickling, &c, without breaking the ligatures ;
this was the custom in the 17th century, which in 1640
and 1670, induced the Corporation (who imagined that
such encumbrances might injure the channel) to cause
the fishermen to open their oysters in the boats, and
throw the shells on the strand, by which that hill of
shells was raised, which at high water is surrounded by
the sea, and called " Oyster bank."*

The late Duke of Northumberland introduced oyster

* ' Topographical and Historical Description of the County of Dorset/
by John Britton, Esq., and Mr. E. W. Brayley, pp. 413, 414.

OSTREAD^l. — OYSTER. 133

cultivation on the Northumbrian coast. They were
imported and established there, and in the year 1865
the fisheries were allowed to commence, when they
were found to have succeeded admirably, but since
then the sand has destroyed the oysters. Messrs,
Forbes and Hanley state that since the introduction of
steamboats and railroads, considerable quantities of
sea-oysters are brought from Falmouth and Helford,
in Cornwall, also from Scotland and Ireland ; the
Irish oysters coming mostly from Carlingford, Mala-
hide, Lissadell, Burran, Arklow, and Wexford ; but
the ( Report of the Irish Fishery Commissioners/ in
1874, gave a most unsatisfactory account of many of
these fisheries; and it is said that the Carlingford beds,
once so productive, are nearly dredged out, and in
1876 the take did not exceed a few thousands. The
Wexford and Tralee beds were in the same condition,
from over dredging and a succession of bad spatting
years. It is not lawful to sell oysters in Ireland in
the months of May, June, and July. The Wexford
men dredged for them, of course, in the other months,
but one reason of the beds being badly stocked
was, that in the closed months they were regularly
dredged by Beaumaris boats, which replenished their
own exhausted beds with them ; and in 1863 a French
lugger visited Wexford seven times, carrying off on
each occasion a large quantity of oysters for "laying
down " on the French coast.*

The amount of oysters taken on the principal
natural oyster-beds in 1876, off Arklow, was 7520
barrels of 450 each, large and small, at prices from
18s. to 24s. Qd. per barrel. In 1875, 13,640 barrels

* « Morning Post,' Aug. 29th, 1864.

134 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLtSCA.

were taken. The Burran Bank oysters are highly
esteemed in Dublin, and are called " Burton Baidcns/'
They are brought from Kilkerran and Rossmuck
Bays, in Gralway, and are laid down to fatten on the
Red Bank Oyster-bed in Aughinish Bay. Formerly
Mr. Burton Bindon was the possessor of these beds,
but now Mr. Singleton has succeeded him, as we are
informed by Mr. Buckland, who visited these and
other oyster-beds on the west coast of Ireland, the
east coast of England, and also those on the west
coast of France.

There are oyster-beds in the Shannon, said in 1836 to
yield a revenue of £1400 ; and formerly, a small bed in
Cork harbour, of no great extent, but the oysters were
large, and prized for stewing; however, I am told that
the latter no longer exists. In Lough Swilly there are
oyster-beds, but the oysters were getting very scarce
in 1876, and it was proposed having what is called in
Ireland, a jubilee, viz., closing the banks, or a portion
of them, for two years, and preventing the picking or
taking of small oysters.* Oysters are increasing in
scarcity and dearness in Ireland and in England, and
this may be traced in a measure to the increased de-
mand, the railroads conveying the oysters into the
country ; and Mr. Farrer stated, in the evidence before
the Committee on Oyster Fisheries, in 1876, that oyster
cultivators had great difficulty in obtaining oysters to
fatten, because they were taken into the manufactur-
ing districts, where the people eat them though in
bad condition ; whereas they formerly had them
brought to the beds in the Thames.

It is said that over- dredging has destroyed many of

* ' Report on Oyster Fisheries,' 1876; Mr. Blake's evidence.

OSTREADiE. OYSTER. 135

the oyster-beds, and doubtless this has been the case
in places ; but on some parts of the coast it is abso-
lutely necessary to dredge during the summer, which
is the close time, to keep the beds free from sand,
weeds, and mud, which accumulate so much that the
spat is injured ; but the principal cause of the scarcity
of the oysters may be attributed to the low tempera-
ture of the water during the spatting season ; the last
few summers having been cold, and the weather so
changeable.

Between London and Glamorganshire there is a
large trade in pickled oysters, and we are told that
seventy-two million oysters are annually consumed in
London alone.*

In Scotland, the Cockenzie fishermen derive a good
portion of their annual income from the oyster trade,
and dredge for them at high and low tide. The crews
of the boats keep up a wild and monotonous song (in
which they believe there is much virtue) all the time
they are dredging, and assert that it charms the
oysters into the dredge. f The same authority further
states, that as a class, the fishers of the Scottish coast
are very superstitious. They do not like being num-
bered whilst standing or walking. It offends them
very much to ask them whilst on their way to their
boats, where they are going to-day. They consider it
unlucky to see the impression of a very flat foot upon
the sand, and they will not go to work, if in the morn-
ing, on leaving their houses, a pig should cross their
path. An experimental steam fishing-vessel has been

* < Journal of Society of Arts.' Aug. 24th, 1883.
+ ' The Fisher Folk of the Scottish East Coast,' Macuiillan's Magazine,
October, 1862, £so. 36.

136 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

built at Cockenzie ; she is a dandy cutter-rigged craft,
forty tons burden, assisted with auxiliary screw steam
power, for the purpose of dredging oysters during the
winter months, and deep-sea trawling during the
summer.

The celebrated " Pandore " oysters are principally
obtained from the neighbourhood of Prestonpans.
The exclusive right to fish, dredge, and cultivate oysters
and mussels, belongs to the barony of Prestongrange,
extending as far as the shores of the barony and to the
centre of the Forth. During the last century, and the
earlier portion of this, the proprietors of the barony
were able to maintain control over the fishermen, and to

regulate the fishing At that date a number of salt

works existed along the shore, and the oysters taken
near them were termed " Pandores," which in Edin-
burgh still designates the finest oysters.* According
to Mr. Frank Buckland, the oysters on the west coast
of Scotland have a very beautiful shell, quite different
from those on the east coast of England, and the
beard of the oyster is always black, and this is also
the case with the Irish, American, and Lisbon oysters.

Among the 'Antient Cryes of London' we find the
following : —

" We daily cryes about the streets may hear,
According to the season of the year ;
Some Wellfleet oysters call, others do cry
Fine Shelsea cockles, or white mussels buy."f

Oysters are imported very largely from France ;
also from the Netherlands, from the Eastern Scheldt
and the Zuyder Zee, and the latter are sold under the

* ' Report on Oyster Fisheries,' 1876. Letter in Appendix, by
Edward Vale, factor for Sir G. G. Suttie.

| Kirby's ' Wonderful Museum,' vol. ii. p. 233.

OSTREAD^E. OYSTER. 137

name of " Anglo-Dutch." Dr. Knapp tells us that not
less than 800,000 tubs of oysters, each tub contain-
ing two English bushels, are annually procured
from the Normandy coast for the English market
and the Channel Islands, and large quantities are
sent from Arcachon. The principal oyster fisheries
on the French coast are those of Courseulles-
sur-Mer, Les Sables d'Olonne, Marennes, and La
Tremblade, which are used simply for rearing and
fattening purposes ; and those which may be regarded
as places of reproduction, are Granville, Cancale,
Auray, Vannes, lie d'Oleron, and Arcachon.*

An interesting paragraph appeared in the ' Times/
November 13th, 1862, on the cultivation of oysters
on the western coast of France. It is as follows : — -
" M. Coste has just communicated a paper to the
Academy of Sciences on the progress of his artificial
oyster-beds. Several thousands of the inhabitants of
the island of Re have been for the last four years en-
gaged in cleansing their muddy coast of the sediments
which prevented oysters from congregating there, and
as the work advances, the seed, wafted from Nieulle
and other oyster localities, settles in the new beds,
and, added to that transplanted, peoples the coast ; so
that 72,000,000 of oysters from one to four years old,
and nearly all marketable, is the lowest average re-
gistered per annum by the local administration, repre-
senting at the rate of from 25 to 30 francs per
thousand, which is the current price in the locality, a
sum of about two millions of francs, the produce of an
extremely limited surface. That the waves or currents

* ' Report on the Principal Oyster Fisheries of France,' by Major
Kayes, 1878.

138 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

carry the seed of oysters is a well-known fact, since
the walls of sluices newly erected are often covered
with them. In the island of Re the existence of oyster-
beds, however, no longer depends upon this contin-
gency, they being now in a state of permanent self-
reproduction. Again, in some localities it is sufficient
to prepare the emerging banks for collection, to see
them soon covered with seed ; but in other places
nothing would be obtained without transplanting
proper subjects. The concession of emerging banks
is anxiously applied for by the inhabitants of the coast,
— the more so, as improvements in the working of this
branch of trade are of daily occurrence. Thus, Dr.
Kemmerer, of Re, covers a number of tiles with a
coating of a kind of mastic, brittle enough to enable him
to detach the small oysters from it. When this coating
is well covered with seed, he gets it off all in one piece,
which he carries to the place where the seed is to
grow. The same tile he coats a second time, and so on."
In France, oysters having a green tint are con-
sidered great delicacies, and the art of greening
oysters is carried to the greatest perfection on the
coasts of Aunis, whence come the celebrated green
oysters of Marennes. They receive their colour and
peculiar flavour when transplanted to certain beds or
claires, which, at the approach of winter, are lined with
a kind of vegetation, which disappears in the spring ;
and the oysters are said to owe their colouring to the
absorption of the chlorophyl with which the waters
of the claires are saturated. It is a fact that the
oyster assumes its green colour when the claire grows
green, and loses its colour when the claire is deprived of
its vegetation. Some have thought that the greening

OSTREAD^. OYSTER. 139

of the Marennes oysters was due to the essentially
argillaceous soil of Marennes, to the brackish waters
of the Seudre, or to oxide of iron ; but at La T rein-
blade, where the greening process is also carried on, it
is attributed as much to the action of fresh water as to
the nature of the soil, and reeds grow on the edges
of the claires which could not grow in salt water.
The greening takes place in a few days. A fortnight
is sufficient when the claire is in the humour. But the
greatest care must be taken not to empty the claire, as
it would be along time before it became green again.*
Oysters are imported into Marennes for fattening
and rearing from all parts of France, and the number
in 1880-81, including Portuguese oysters, amounted to
130,000,000. In 1882, Marennes sent out 151,000,000
oysters, representing a value of 5,900,000 francs.f
Some years since these Marennes oysters were so much
in demand, that the white oyster-beds in the neigbour-
hood had become insufficient to stock these peculiar
beds where the creature acquires the green colour and
delicious taste which causes the Marennes oyster to be
so eagerly sought after. White oysters had therefore
to be imported from Spain, Brittany, Ireland, and
England. A considerable quantity of oysters were at
one time imported from Falmouth, and these contain
copper, which imparts an acrid taste. They were gene-
rally, on their arrival, deposited in certain beds apart
from the others, and there kept for six months, after
which it was proved by experience that they lost their
copper, salt, and bad flavour. A Marennes fisherman,

* ' Oyster Culture in France,' Translation of Report, by M. G. Bou-
cbon-Brandeley. Edward Staubope, 1877.

f ' Translation of Report on Oyster Culture in France,' by M. Broccbi,
Aug. 1st, 1882. T. H. Farrer.

140 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

whose trade was not very extensive, procured a few
thousand oysters from Falmouth, and, out of thirst for
gain, he sent them off to Rochefort, before they had
sojourned more than three weeks in the beds set apart
for their purification. These oysters caused alarming
symptoms, and M. Cuzent, being called upon to test
them, as they had been seized in the market at Roche-
fort, found copper in them, the quantity being about
twenty-three centigrammes per dozen oysters.* I have
elsewhere given an account of the finding of copper in
the Falmouth oysters; one of the tests used by M.
Cuzent was so very simple, that any one might discover
the presence of copper. It is as follows : — An ordinary
needle is thrust into the green part of the oyster, and
then the mollusk was immersed in pure vinegar. When
copper was present, thirty seconds sufficed to cover the
portion of the needle embedded in the oyster with a red
coatiug of copper, f

The amount of shell-fish consumed in Paris annually,
including lobsters, crayfish, oysters, &c, is immense.
In 1867, the consumption of oysters in Paris was
26,750,775, of which the greater portion came from
Courseulles-sur-Mer, and from Saint Vaast-de-la-
Hougue.J In the 'Revue des Deux Mondes/ Janvier
l er , 1884, it is stated that the consumption of oysters in
Paris alone was 2,000,000.

Oysters are not packed in barrels, as with us, but at
the restaurants and in the wine-shops are seen very
shallow baskets, in shape resembling a small shield,
with a thatching or wall of straw on either side, rising

* * Galignani's Messenger.' t ' Field,' March 14th, 1868.

% ' Revue des Deux Moudes,' " L'Alimentatiou de Paris," tome kxv.
15 Juin, 1868.

OSTREAD.E. OYSTER. 141

to the height of a foot or a foot and a half, tied with
string at both ends and across the centre. These
baskets contain a hundred or more oysters, according
to their size.

There is another species of oyster largely cultivated
in the French oyster-beds, which I have already men-
tioned, viz., Osirea angulata (the Gryphoea angulata,
of Lamarck), the Tagus oyster, and quantities are
consumed in England, where they are known by the
name of Anglo -Portuguese. Its introduction and
acclimatization in France are due to an accidental
case.* A vessel bound from Portugal was laden with
a cargo of this oyster. Having entered the Gironde,
after a long passage, the captain, believing the oysters
dead, threw the cargo overboard, upon an old oyster-
bed named the Richard bed. Having found in the
Gironde a soil nearly identical with that which they
came from, and conditions favourable to their propaga-
tion, the oysters multiplied in such proportions that from
the Pointe de Grave to the above Richard bed, an extent
of thirty kilometres, they form one vast bed.

The taste and flavour are very different to that of
our native oysters. It delights in muddy and brackish
waters, and is suitable for sending long distances, as
the lower valve is deep and holds much water. M. Paul
Fischer says that it belongs essentially to the Littoral
Zone, and is uncovered at each tide, and everywhere
distributed where limpets are found.f The first im-
portation of Ostrea angulata to the Arcachon beds from
Lisbon was in 18fi6.

* • Oyster Culture iu France,' Translation of Report, by M. Bouchon-
Brandeley, 1883.

T ' Journal de Conchy liologie,' 3me Serie, tome xx. No. 1, 1880.

142 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

In the Bay of Cadiz Ostrea Virginica (or Ostrea
angulata?) is eaten when very small, but the poor people
eat it full-size, viz., ten inches long. This species lives
in the salt mud of the Guadalete, and is called Ostione;
other oysters are called Ostrea or Ostrias, and Ostrea
edulis is known by the name of Ostia blanca. The river
is said to be salt three leagues from its mouth.

A Freuchman at Puerto St. Maria tried the experi-
ment of breeding oysters for the Madrid market, but
they were slimy, and not to be compared with the
English oysters, though they were said to be good when
cooked ; and Major Byng Hall stated that at Madrid,
oysters — not fine ones — cost twopence-halfpenny (that
is, 1 suppose, one real) each ; but this is not very
remarkable, for in 1865 natives cost twopence, and
Whitstable oysters three-halfpence each in London, the
very land of oysters, so scarce had the mollusks become.

Ostrea edulis is found in abundance in the Gulfs
of Trieste and of Venice. Ostreo- culture is carried on
in a most primitive manner by the fishermen of Moi -
falcone, Duino, Zaole, &c. They drive piles, or rather
oak branches, into the bed of the sea, in one and a half
to two fathoms of water, in the spring, and in the
autumn, when the spat has settled on them, they are
transferred into deep waters, there to await their de-
velopment after the third season. In Dalmatia the
branches of oak are m< rely thrown into the water, and
there allowed to remain until the oysters mature and fall

off*

The Tarentines declare that oysters are fattest during
the full moon, and they are also fully persuaded that
the moon-beams have a pernicious effect upon sea-fish,

* < The Fisheries of the Adriatic,' by G. L. Faber.

OSTREAD^). OYSTER. 143

therefore they cover over fish taken by moonlight, lest
they should decompose. The Italian name for the
oyster is Ostrica.

Experiments have been tried, both on the French and
English coasts, to acclimatize the large American oyster,
Ostrea Virginica, or Ostrea Virginiana, but they did not
succeed, and although when the weather was warm
they seemed to fatten and grow, still they would not
spawn or spat. Large quantities of American oysters
are sent over to Liverpool, and other parts of England,
and are sold at a moderate price — from Is. to Is. 6d. a
dozen was the cost of them in 1876. In 1879, 90,663
barrels of oysters were shipped to England from New
York, and its neighbourhood, at a total value of £90,661.

Mr. Nichols, in his ' Forty Years in America/ tells
us that oysters are never oat of season in New York.
They are brought from the shores of Virginia, and
planted to grow and fatten ; so that every quality and
flavour can be produced by the varying situations of
the banks, and the time of planting and the depth of
water regulates the season of the oyster, and keeps the
market in constant supply. There is a celebrated
restaurant for oysters in New York, No. 783, Sixth
Avenue, and the late proprietor, Mr. Robert Burns,
informed Mr. Marshall, in November, 1879, that he had
then in stock about fifty thousand, and in holiday time
he kept from four to five thousand oysters. The shells
of one of the large Cow Bay oysters measured 10J inches
in length, and averaged 4| inches in width, and the fish
inside averaged 6 inches by 4 inches. Mr. Marshall was
shown 15,000 of these monsters stored away in bins in a
cellar under the house. Sometimes even larger speci-
mens are to be met with. Cow Bay is an inlet of Long

144 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Island Sound about fifty miles above New York.* From
information received in 1883, kindly given by the
manager of the restaurant, which is now carried on by
a son of Mr. R. Burns, it appears that since 1879 the
business has been doubled, and double the amount of
oysters consumed.

It is not only in seaport towns in America that
oysters are eaten in enormous quantities, but towns a
thousand miles inland are well supplied, and oyster
suppers are as common in Cincinnati or St. Louis as in
New York or Baltimore. It was stated by Mr. Consul
Rainall, in 1869, that eight millions of bushels of oysters
are annually landed at Baltimore for home consumption
and packing, and as many more to other places.
Baltimore is the largest oyster-market in the world.
The average consumption for seven months in the
year is 35,000 bushels per day. One firm alone from
October 1st till June 1st, averages 4000 bushels a day,
packing from 16,000 to 25,000 cans daily, hermetically
sealed, containing lib. and 21bs. of oysters.f

In the ' Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries in
Maryland, January, 1880/ is the following account of
the oyster-fisheries in Chesapeake Bay, given by Mr.
W. H. Brooks :— " The town of Crisfield, Maryland, is
situated at the junction of the two sounds of Pokamoke
and Tangier, two large and wide but shallow sheets of
water, whose muddy bottoms abound in oysters of the
best quality. The town is one of the most important
centres of the oyster-packing industry, and is built in
the water upon the shells of the oysters which have
been shipped to all parts of the country for consump-

• 'Through America,' by W. G. Marshall, M.A..
f ' Field,' May 8th, 1869.

OSTREAD.E. — OYSTER. 145

tiou. As fast as the oysters are opened the shells are
used to build up new land, and with them a large
peninsula has been formed, stretching out for more
than half a mile from the low marshy shore towards
the oyster-beds, and furnishing room for wide streets,
a railroad, and a steamboat landing, in addition to the
large packing-houses, and the shops and dwellings for
a population of several thousand people. A single view
of the long white solid streets and docks of this
singular town would convey a much more vivid idea of
the oyster-packing industry than any number of tables
of statistics. At some future period this enormous
accumulation of oyster-shells will be considered as a
kjokkenmoddings.'"*

In Brand's s Popular Antiquities ' we are told, that
oysters are in season in London on St. James's Day,
July 25th (old style), and that there is a popular super-
stition still in force, similar to that relating to goose on
Michaelmas Day, viz., that whoever eats oysters on
that day will never want money for the rest of the year ;
but the real oyster season is considered to commence
on the 4th of August, and last until January, and the
natives especially, from October to March. Oysters are
said to be in season when the month has the letter r in
it. In 'Poor Robin's Almanack/ 1719, under Sep-
tember, he says, —

" This month hath gotten an R in't,
By which Astrologers do hint,
That the Fish icleped oysters,
Are in their operative moistures,
Which tho' counted ungodly meat,
Because without grace they are eat,

* ' Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland,' 1880.
' Development of the American Ouster,' by W. K. Brooks.

L

146 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

And also uncharitable,

'Cause naught but Shells come from Table,

Whereby the Poor small comfort gain,

Yet this for Truth I will maintain,

That with a glass of good Canary,

(Oh ! which to drink too much be chary ;)

Being wash'd down, 1 say with sack,

No commendations they need lack ! "

Oysters are very beneficial to persons who suffer from
weak digestions, bat then they must be eaten raw, and
without vinegar or pepper, and I have known an invalid
able to eat oysters when quite unable to take any other
food; and oysters are also recommended for consumptive
patients. Mr. Frank Buckland gives the following
description of the composition of an oyster, viz., the
chemical ingredients contained in them, " Oysters con-
tain a great deal of water of the same composition as
sea- water ; namely, hydro-chlorate of soda, hydro-
chlorate of magnesia, sulphate of lime, sulphate of soda,
and sulphate of magnesia, phosphate of iron and lime.
Then they contain much osmazome, or creatine. You
cannot see osmazome very well, but osmazome is the
smell of roast beef.. It is the same thing as the essence
of meat. The oyster also contains a certain quantity of
gelatine and mucus, which renders it so digestible, and
thirdly, it contains an animal material of which phos-
phorus is the principal ingredient. Phosphorus is the
principal brain-making form of food that we can take,
and therefore those who are fond of literary pursuits,
who have to work hard, always find that oysters will
bring them better up to the mark than any other form
of food that they can take."*

In China, fresh oysters are used to cure freckles. I

* <

Report on Oyster Fisheries,' 1876.

OSTREADjE. OYSTER. 147

have already mentioned that artificial oyster cultivation
is carried on in China, and has been for many genera-
tions. The principal oyster-beds are situated near the
mainland, opposite the north and east of Namoa Island.
Pieces of rock or stones are laid out on the beds, old
oysters are placed on them, and here the spat is
deposited. After three years, the oysters are brought
to market. As regards quality, they are inferior to
those of Amoy and Foochow, which are exported on a
large scale to the ports along the coasts.*

M. Dabry de Thersant says that there are some prolific
beds in the neighbourhood of Macao, which, after
deducting the working expenses, about £600, return
an annual profit of more than £2000. A staff of eight
men are employed on these beds, at about £1 per
month each. Another bed which is leased for an
annual sum of £10, for thirty years, returns a profit of
from £1100 to £1200 per annum.f

The best oysters are those collected in January,
February, and March. There are several species of
oysters in China. The Bamboo Oysters are grown in the
following manner. Old oyster-shells of two kinds are
selected, thick and thin, each of the thick ones having
a hole one and a half inches in diameter bored through
the centre of it. Slips of bamboo about two feet in
length, one and a half inches wide, and half an inch
thick, are pointed and split to about half the distance
down, a thin shell is inserted in each split near its
bottom end, the two top ends of each split are pressed
together and thrust into the perforated shell, which

* ' China : Imperial Maritime Customs.' Special Catalogue, Inter-
national Fisheries Exhibition, London, 18S3.
t " ± ii^ht of the Lapwing.'

148 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

holds it securely. When a sufficient number of bam-
boos have been prepared, they are planted very closely
together on the mud flats, much in the same way as a
gardener plants cuttings. At the end of about a month,
the spat, which had attached itself to them when planted
out, has developed into small oysters. The bamboos
are then taken up and transplanted about six inches
apart. In four or five months the bamboos are almost
hid by the oysters which cluster round them, and which
are now collected and sold.* The shells of the oyster
and murex were used by the Romans as tooth-powder,
and oyster-shells are now used as manure. The
Chinese use the shells, when ground down, in certain
skin diseases; and the valves of Ostrea talienwanensis,
and of other species of oysters, are calcined wntil quite
white, pulverized, and then mixed with the juice of
certain plants, as a dressing for ulcers.f In the crab
traps in China, which are made of bamboo in the shape
of a truncated cone, the bait is placed in the middle of
the basket, and an oyster is generally used for that
purpose.

Juan Francisco de San Antonio, in his ' Chronicos
de los Rel. Descalzos de S. Francisco/ &c, 1738, men-
tions the use of great oyster-shells for " holy water,"
and speaks of one known to be ninety years old, by the
layers of its shell. But I fancy he must mean the shell
of the Tridacna gigas, as we know it is used for that
purpose; and in the church of St. Sulpice, in Paris,
are two of these shells resting upon rock-work in
marble, by Pigalle; they were given to Francis I. by

* * China : Imperial Maritime Customs,' &c.

f ' Essai sur la Pharmacie et la Mature Medicale des Cliinois,' par
J. 0. Debeaux.

OSTREA.D^]. OYSTER. 149

the Republic of Venice. In the ' Intellectual Observer/
vol. i., p. 483, is an account of an u oyster-shell " island,
by M. Aucapitaine, on the east coast of Corsica, com-
posed of layers of shells, bearing some resemblance to
the shell-mounds of St. Michel-en-1'Herm, in La Vendee.
This island is formed of still-living species, and is
between three hundred and four hundred yards in
circumference, the greatest elevation about thirty
yards, and the mean elevation rather more than two
yards above the level of the sea. The Romans are said
by the fishermen to have deposited the shells of the
oysters there, which they salted for exportation, but
1L Aucapitaine does not believe in the artificial origin
of this island.

According to M. do Quatrefages, the shell-mounds
of St. Michel-en-1'Herin are composed of oyster, mussel,
and scailop shells, of the same species as those living
now in the neighbouring seas* Many of them have
their valves still connected by the ligament which forms
the hinge, and they have not even changed colour.
The three banks of St. Michel- en-1' Her m are about
seven hundred and thirty yards in length, three hundred
in width, and rise about ten to fifteen yards above the
level of the surrounding marshes.

Mr. Buckland mentions a large heap of oyster-shells
in G-alway Bay, at a place called Creggauns ; another
south-west of Tyrone, and one at Ardfry Point. The
Creggauns heap consists principally of the shells of the
oyster, mussel, and common cockle, though the whelk,
Pecten variug, periwinkle, limpet, Nassa reticulata.
Helix nemor alls, Trochwt, and Venerupis decussata (Tapes
decussata?), are also found in it. There are layers of
wood-ashes and stones, apparently used as hearth-

150 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

stones, showing the marks of having been subjected to
fire, but no weapons. The heap occupies an irregular
space of two hundred feet long, and sixty feet wide,
and ranges from six to eight feet deep. There are
various traditions as to the age of the heaps ; and it is
said, that ninety years ago a series of high tides cast
up the heap of shells from adjoining beds.*

Dr. Schliemann found oyster-shells in large numbers
in the ruins of all the five prehistoric settlements at
Hissarlik, showing that oysters must have been a
favourite food with all the early settlers, and their
abundance in the first and oldest city is confirmed by
Professor R. Virchow.f

In an old kitchen-midden, in the Andaman Is-
lands, close to the landing-place at Hoinfray's Ghat,
Mount Augusta, the valves of oysters Arcidoe. and
Cyrenidce, are found in abundance, but the present race
of Andamanese are stated by Mr. Ball not to eat oysters,
which suggests the idea that possibly there were dif-
ferent inhabitants of this portion of the island at some
former period. J Saint-Hilaire describes heaps of oyster
and other shells, bordering the river Piriqui-assii, near
Aldea Velha, which are without doubt kjokkenmodding?.
Similar shell-heaps, or Ostreiras, as they are called in
Brazil, are found on the coast of Sao Paulo, and on the
Ilha do Governador, in the Bay of Rio. They often
contain human remains, pottery, &c §

At the present day the Baltic appears to be almost
the only sea where the oyster will not grow, a fact

* ' Field,' February 4th, 1865.

+ ' Trqja, 1 by Dr. Henry Schliemann, see note vi. p. 285.
X 'Jungle Life in India.'

§ ' Scientific Results of Agassiz's Journey,' by Charles Fred. Hartt.
Note.

OSTEEAD.E. — OYSTER. 151

attributable to the very great influx of fresh water from
the mouths of its many rivers, and the less powerful
current from the ocean, so that, in the words of Sir
Charles Lyell, " the Ostrea edulis cannot live at present
in the brackish waters of the Baltic, except near its
entrance." Yet, from the examination of the Danish
kjokkenmoddings, it appears " that the oyster flourished
in places from which it is now excluded, attaining its
full size."

Oysters may be eaten in various ways, either cooked
or raw : —

" The pepper-box, the cruet, — wait
To give a relish to the taste ;
The mouth is watering for the bait
Within the pearly cloisters cased.

" Take off the beard, — as quick as thought,
The pointed knife divides the flesh;
What plates are laden ! Loads are brought,
And eaten raw, and cold, and fresh." *

The oddest way of cooking an oyster, of which we
have any mention, is that recorded by Evelyn, who, in
the year 1672, saw Richardson, " the famous fire-eater,"
perform wondrous feats, one of which was, ' ' taking a
live coal on his tongue, he put on it a raw oyster ; the
coal was blown on with bellows, till it flamed and
sparkPd in his mouth, and so remained till the oyster
gaped, and was quite boil'd." Who ate the oyster
thus cooked, we are not informed. f

The Chinese seldom eat fresh oysters, they are
usually dried. They are first boiled for a short time,
and then either exposed to the sun, or dried over a slow

* Hone's * Every Day Book,' vol. ii. p. 1071.
*f* ' Evelyn's Memoirs,' vol. i. p. 438.

152 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

fire until they look like mushrooms, and give off a nasty
rancid smell. When they are eaten fresh, they are
taken with ginger and vinegar, and a sauce is made by
boiling down the water in which oysters have pre-
viously been boiled.*

" Oyster Soup. — Take fifty oysters ; blanch them, but
do not let them boil ; strain through a sieve, and save
the liquor. Put a quarter of a pound of butter into
a stew-pan; when it is melted, add six ounces of flour;
stir it over the fire for a few minutes, add the liquor
from the oysters, two quarts of veal stock, one quart
of new milk ; season with salt, peppercorns, a little
cayenne pepper, a blade of mace, Harvey's sauce and
essence of anchovy, a tablespoonf ul of each ; strain it
through a tammy, let it boil ten minutes ; put the
oysters into the tureen, with a gill of cream, and pour
the boiling soup upon them.^f

Gower Recipe for Oyster Soiqi. — Boil four sheep's
feet in two quarts of water, till reduced to one quart ;
it will then be a stiff jelly ; put in it, while boiling, a
small blade of mace ; take off the fat, and thicken it
with one and a half tablespoonfuls of ground rice ; add
from twenty to fifty oysters; boil it till thick enough,
and add a teacupf ul of cream.

Ouster Soup is also particularly good when made
with a fish stock ; as, for instance, with equal quan-
tities of flounders, skate, and eels, or indeed with any
fish that is abundant, and not much in request for
other purposes.

Oyster Soup. — Take four dozen o} 7 sters ; lay the fish
apart, and pass the liquor through a sieve, into a

* ' Flight of the Lapwing.' f Murray's 'Modern Cookery.'

OSTREAD^J. OYSTER. 1 5 3

stew-pan ; set it on the fire ; beat up the yolks of six
eggs, and stir them in with half a pint of cream ; add
water or milk to the required quantity ; season with
pepper, a little grated lemon-peel, and the flesh of an
anchovy beaten up, with a little butter and a small
teaspoonful of good arrowroot. Five minutes before
serving, put in the oysters.*

" Potage a la Poissonniere. — Blanch and beard two
dozen of oysters, and four dozen of very fresh mussels ;
put a quarter of a pound of butter into a stew-pan,
with six ounces of flour, make a white roux ; when cool,
add the liquor of the oysters, mussels, and bones of a
sole, with two quarts of broth, and three pints of
milk; season with a spoonful of salt, one ditto of
sugar, a sprig of thyme, parsley, two bay-leaves, four
cloves, and two blades of mace ; pass through a
tammy into a clean stew-pan ; boil and skim well ; cut
about ten pieces of salmon into thin slices, half an inch
long, a quarter of an inch wide ; cut the fillet of the
sole the same size; put all into the boiling soup, with
half a handful of picked parsley and a gill of good
cream ; put the oysters and mussels in the tureen, and
serve." t

" Oyster Mouth Soup. — Make a rich mutton broth,
with two large onions, three blades of mace, and black
pepper. When strained, pour it on a hundred and
fifty oysters, without the beards, and a bit of butter
rolled in flour; simmer gently a quarter of an hour,
and serve." J

" To make an Oyster Soup. — Your stock must be

* Maitre Jacques.

f ' The Gastronomic Regenerator,' by Mons. A. Soyer.

X < All About Oysters.'

154 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLTTSCA.

made of any sort of fish the place affords ; let there be
about two quarts. Take a pint of oysters, beard them
put them into a saucepan, strain the liquor, let them
stew two or three minutes in their own liquor, then
take the hard parts of the oysters, and beat them in a
mortar with the yolks of four hard-boiled eggs ; mix
them with some of the soup, put them with the other
part of the oysters and liquor into a saucepan, a little
nutmeg, pepper, and salt; stir them well together,
and let it boil a quarter of an hour. Dish it up, and
send it to table."*

"White Oyster Sauce (No. 43). — First scald and beard
the oysters, and save the liquor. Next knead two ounces
of butter, with one ounce of flour (or, better still, with
arrowroot) , in a stew-pan ; add the liquor, a gill of
cream or milk, a little nutmeg, cayenne, anchovy,
and lemon-juice ; stir over the fire until the sauce boils,
then add the oysters and serve hot." f

" Brown Oyster Sauce (No. 44). — Prepare the oysters
as in the foregoing recipe, boil down their liquor, add
half a pint of brown sauce (No. 12), or if there is none
ready, use melted butter instead, adding a little
browning ; season with a little anchovy, cayenne, and
lemon-juice; add the oysters; boil together for a few
minutes, and serve hot." J

" Oyster Sauce. — Set a pint of cream upon the hob,
beside a fire of clear glowing ashes, in an earthenware
pipkin, glazed inside. Take two ounces of butter, and
intimately mix with part of it a teaspoonful of best
arrowroot, flavour with the flesh of anchovy, pounded,
a dash of cayenne-wine, a squeeze of lemon-juice, and a

* ' The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy.'

t Francatelli's « Cook's Guide.' ± Idem.

OSTREAD^E. OYSTEll. 155

scrap of peel, and stir" in the whole, letting it boil
until of the proper consistence; then put in the
oysters (if of a large size they should be cut into
halves or quarters), and keep stirring the sauce for
about two minutes. — N.B. In mixing the butter with
the cream take care that the blending proceeds
slowly, and keep stirring gently with a wooden
spoon." *

" Old Recipe for Making Oyster Sauce. — Take half a
pint of large oysters, liquor and all ; put them into a
saucepan with two or three blades of mace, and twelve
whole peppercorns ; let them simmer over a slow fire,
till the oysters are fine and plump, then carefully with
a fork take out the oysters from the liquor and spice,
and let the liquor boil five or six minutes ; strain the
liquor, wash out the saucepan well, and put the
oysters and liquor into the saucepan again with half a
pint of gravy, and half a pound of butter just rolled
in a little flour. Add two spoonfuls of white wine,
keep it stirring till the sauce boils, and all the butter
is melted."

" Oyster Atlets. — Blanch throat-sweetbreads, and cut
them into slices ; then take rashers of bacon the size of
the slices of sweetbreads, and as many large oysters
blanched as there are pieces of sweetbread and
bacon. Put the whole into a stew-pan, with a piece of
fresh butter, parsley, thyme, and eschalots, chopped
very fine ; pepper, salt, and lemon-juice, a small quan-
tity of each. Put them over a slow fire, and simmer
them five minutes. Then lay them on a dish, and when
a little cool, put them upon a small wooden or silver
skewer; a slice of sweetbread, a slice of bacon, and an

* Muitre Jacques.

156 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

oyster, and so on alternately till the skewers are full ;
then put bread-crumbs over them, which should be
rubbed through a hair-sieve, and broil the atlets gently
till done and of a light-brown colour. Serve them up
with a little cullis under them, together with the liquor
from the blanched oysters reduced and added to it."*

" Curried Oyster Atlets. — Take slices of sweetbreads,
or slices of mutton or veal of the same size, put them
into a stew-pan with a piece of fresh butter, a table-
spoonful of currie-powder, the juice of half a lemon,
and a little salt. Set them over a slow fire, and when
they are half done, add to them blanched and bearded
oysters, with their liquor free from sediment, simmer
together five minutes, lay them on a dish, and when
cold put them alternately on small wooden skewers.
Then dip them in the liquor, strew fine bread-crumbs
on each side, broil them over a clear fire till of a brown-
colour, and serve them up with some currie sauce under
them. — N.B. The slices of sweetbread, oyster, veal, or
mutton, to be of an equal number/'f

" Curried Oysters. — Let a hundred of large sea-oysters
be opened into a basin, without losing one drop of
their liquor. Put a lump of fresh butter into a good-
sized saucepan, and when it boils, add a large onion,
cut it into thin slices, and let it fry in the uncovered
stew-pan until it is of a rich brown ; now add a bit
more butter, and two or three tablespoonfuls of currie-
powder. When these ingredients are well mixed over
the fire with a wooden spoon, add gradually either hot
water or broth from the stockpot, cover the stew-pan,
and let the whole boil up.

" Meanwhile, have ready the meat of a cocoa-nut,

* ' Old Cookery Book.' t Idem.

OSTREAD^ . OYSTER. 157

grated or rasped fine, put this into the stew-pan with a
few sour tamarinds (if they are to be obtained, if not, a
sour apple chopped). Let the whole simmer over the
fire until the apple is dissolved, and the cocoa-nut very
tender; then add a strong thickening made of flour
and water, and sufficient salt, as a currie will not bear
being salted at table. Let this boil up for five minutes.
Have ready also a vegetable marrow, or part of one,
cut into bits, and sufficiently boiled to require little or
no further cooking. Put this in with a tomato or two ;
either of these vegetables may be omitted. Now put
into the stew-pan the oysters, with their own liquor,
and the milk of the cocoa-nut, if it be perfectly sweet ;
stir them well with the former ingredients ; boil the
currie, stew gently for a few minutes, then throw in
the strained juice of half a lemon. Stir the currie from
time to time with a wooden spoon, and, as soon as the
oysters are done enough, serve it up, with a corre-
sponding dish of rice on the opposite side of the table.
This dish is considered at Madras the ne plus ultra of
Indian cookery."*

ft To Steiv Oysters. — Take the oysters clean from their
liquor. Let the liquor stand till it is clear ; then put a
little of it to the oysters, and stew them ; then put
to them a little white wine, a little cream, a little
lemon-juice, and a bit of butter ; shake them together,
then serve/'f

i( American Box Stew. — For six people open six doz^u
of oysters, put them in a basin with their own liquor.
Place in a stew-pan a pint and a half of milk and a
quarter of a pound of butter, pepper and salt to taste ;

* Miss Acton's ' Modern Cookery Book,' taken from ' Magazine of
Domestic Economy.' f MS. Book.

158 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

thicken witli a teaspoonful of flour, then add the yolks
of two eggs ; when boiling throw in the oysters and
liquor, let it boil up again; then pour immediately into
six soup plates ; in the bottom of each a round of dry
toast must have been previously placed. Some prefer
two dozen of oysters to each soup-plate, instead of one
dozen, in which case, double the quantity of oysters and
their liquor is required, leaving the other ingredients
as before."*

" Oysters Stewed. — Wash them in their own liquor,
strain them, put them into a saucepan with some
white pepper pounded, a little beaten mace, a little
cream, a piece of butter mixed with flour ; stir this till
it boils, throw in the oysters, simmer them till enough ;
add salt if required ; toasted sippets round the dish."f

" To Stew Oysters another way. — Take a quart of
oysters, wash them one by one in their own liquor with
a little vinegar and white wine ; then strain the liquor
into a saucepan, and put your oysters to it, with a bit
of mace, whole pepper, cloves, nutmeg, and a very
little thyme and savory, a whole onion, and a little
lemon-peel ; cover it close, and let it stew very slowly
almost a quarter of an hour ; then make a sauce with
six spoonfuls of the liquor, shalot, anchovies, some
butter, a little mace, and juice of lemon; wet sippets
in the stewed liquor and lay them upon a plate, lay
your oysters on them, the best side upwards, and
crumble the yolks of two or three hard-boiled eggs
over them, so pour on your sauce. Garnish with lemon
and barberries.!"

* { All About Oysters.'

f ' The Lady's Assistant,' by Mrs. Charlotte Mason, 1775.

J 'The Lady's Companion,' 1753, vol. ii. p. 151.

OSTREAD/E. — OYSTER. 159

" Oysters Stewed with Milk. — Take a pint of fine
American oysters, put them with their own liquor and
a gill of milk into a stew-pan, and, if liked, a blade of
mace ; set it over the fire, take off any scum which may
rise; when they are plump and white, turn them into
a deep plate ; add a little butter and pepper to taste.
Serve crackers and dressed celery with them.'"*

" To Stew Oysters the French way. — Parboil a quart of
oysters in their own liquor, wash them in warm water,
beard them, and put them into a pipkin with a little of
their own liquor, white wine, salt, pepper, and a whole
onion, and let them stew till they are done enough;
then put them, liquor and all, into a frying-pan, and
fry them a little; then put in a lump of fresh butter,
and fry a little longer ; then take the yolks of four
eggs dissolved in vinegar, with minced parsley, and
grated nutmeg, put these into the frying-pan to the
oysters, shake them, let them have a walm (sic) or two,
and serve them."f

" Dutch Oysters. — Roll rock oysters in yolk of ego> }
then dip them in grated bread-crumbs and white pepper,
one by one, and fry them in butter. Serve them with
melted butter in a sauce tureen."}

To Fry Oysters. — Take the largest oysters, open them,
but do not mangle them, wash them in their own liquor
and take away all bits of shells; strew a little flour
over them. Dip them in the yolk of an egg, and fry
them brown in butter.

" To Fry Oysters another way. — Beat four eggs with
salt, add a little nutmeg grated, and a spoonful of

* Mrs. Crowen's 'American Lady's Cookery Book.'

t ' The Lady's Companion,' 1753, vol. i. p. 164.

X ' The English Cookery Buok,' edited by J. U. Walsh.

160 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

grated bread, then make it as thick as batter for pan-
cakes, with fine flour; drop in the oysters, and fry
them brown in clarified beef suet. They are to lay
round any dish of fish."*

" To Fry Oysters. — Take two quarts of large oysters,
parboil them in their own liquor, then wash them in
warm water, dry them, beard them, and flour them ;
then fry them crisp in clarified butter ; then lay in the
dish prawns or shrimps buttered with cream and sweet
butter, and lay the fried oysters about them ; run them
over with beaten butter, and the juice of oranges; lay
bay-leaves and orange or lemon in slices round the
oysters, "f

11 To Fry Oysters. — Open large oysters, and lay them
on a sieve to drain ; then put them into a marinade of
the juice of three or four lemons, and a sliced onion,
pepper, a little basil, a bay-leaf, and five or six cloves.
Turn the oysters often when they lie in this marinade.
Then make a batter with flour and water, and one egg
and a little salt. Beat these well together: melt a bit
of butter as big as a walnut, and mix it with your
batter; then take your oysters out of the marinade,
and dry them well between two napkins, dip the oysters
in the batter, and fry them in clarified butter made
very hot. When they are fried brown, serve them up
on a clean napkin, with fried parsley."J

" Fried Oysters — Ostras Asada, Spanish recipe. —
Take the fish out of the shells, and simmer slowly for
some minutes in their own liquor. Add salt, pepper,
parsley chopped fine, a clove of garlic, some oil or
butter, iu which fry them gently; stir in a spoonful of

* « The Housewife's Pookot Book.'

♦ ' Cook's aud Confectioner's Dictionary,' Jobu Xott. J Idem.

OSTREADJE. OYSTER. 161

flour, and moisten them with equal quantities of broth
and wine. When done, add the juice of a lemon v

"Fried Oysters ; another way. — Beat up two or three
eggs in a cup, and rasp bread-crumbs on a plate, with
sweet herbs powdered, and lemon-peel. Dry the
oysters as much as possible, souse them in the egg f and
cover them with crumbs. Fry them in plenty of good
butter, and serve with lemon-juice, cayenne, and brown
bread and butter, cut thin."*

" A Ragout of Oysters. — Melt some butter, put in a
little flour; keep it stirring till brown; wet it with
gravy ; put in a crust with the oysters and liquor ; toss
it; season, with pepper, parsley, and fish broth/'

"A Ragout of Oysters — Ostras Guisadas, Spanish
recipe. — Put the liquor of the oysters into a saucepan,
with strong broth, and warm it, salt to your taste ; then
add the oysters, and a chopped anchovy or two; let
them simmer, but not boil; serve with chicken, or
white meat."

" Grilled Oysters — Open and detach the largest
oysters ; place upon each a small piece of butter, well
mixed with finely chopped parsley and spices ; place
them on the gridiron, and when they begin to boil, serve
them on a dish ; or else detach the oysters from their
shells, and let them simmer in their own liquor ; take
them out, and let them be placed again over tbe fire,
with a piece of butter, parsley, some pepper, and a
little lemon-juice. Put four oysters into each shell (after
it has been well cleansed), and place the shell on the
gridiron again for a few minutes, taking care not to let
them boil up. "I

" Oysters broiled the Butch way.— Take two quarts of

• Maitre Jacques. f ' La Cuisiniere de la Campague.'

M

1(52 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

large oysters, open and parboil them in their own
liquor; strain them, and then put them into a pipkin,
with some mace, butter, and slices of onion ; stew
them, and after that place the shells on a gridiron, and
put two or three oysters into a shell ; let them broil
or stew in their own liquor, and so setting them
on plates, fill them with beaten butter, and serve them
up."*

" To Roast Oysters (206). — Place the oysters unopened
between the bars of a fire, or in a charcoal stove. They
require about six or eight minutes time.^f

" Oysters Boasted. — Take large oysters and spit them
upon little long sticks, and tie them to the spit, lay
them down to the fire, and when they ai e dry, baste
them with claret wine ; put into the pan two anchovies,
and two or three bay-leaves ; when you think they are
sufficiently done, baste them with butter, and dredge
them, and take a little of the liquor out of the pan, and
some butter, and beat it in a porringer, and pour over
them."*

(t Oysters Roasted, American recipe. — Wash the shells
perfectly clean, wipe them dry, and lay them on a
gridiron, the largest side to the fire; set it over a
bright bed of coals ; when the shells open wide, and the
oyster looks white, they are done ; fold a napkin on a
large dish or tray, lay the oysters on it in their shells,
taking care not to lose the juice ; serve hot.

fi When oysters (large American ?J are s-erved roasted
at supper, there must be a small tub between each two
chairs, to receive the shells, and large coarse napkins

* ' The Family Dictionary,' b William Salaion, 1710.
f 'The English Cookery Book.'

J ' The Family Dictiuna \.'

OSTKEADtE.— OYSTER. 163

cnUed oyster napkins. Serve cold butter and rolls, or
crackers, with roasted oysters."*

" Oysters — Ostras a la Pollada, Spanish recipe. —
Take oysters out of their shells, and blanch them in
boiling water ; then throw them into cold water, and
take them out and let them drain. Put into a saucepan
a piece of butter mixed with flour, parsley chopped
fine, and mushrooms; warm this over the fire, and add
sufficient broth to moisten it, and when it is thickened
sufficiently, add the oysters seasoned with pepper and
salt, and let the whole boil. The moment before
serving add the juice of a lemon, or a little vinegar."

" Boiled Oysters. — Wash the shells nicely, and put
them into a pot or pan, with the edges downwards ;
put a pint, or a little less, of water to them, and put
them over a brisk fire. As soon as the shells open
wide, take them off, and take out the shells ; then take
up the oysters with a skimmer, and put them into a
deep dish ; put to them some of the liquor which boiled
from them ; add to it butter and pepper to taste, and
serve with rolls, crackers, or toast/'' For persons in
delicate health, this manner of preparing oysters, is
both light and healthful. f

" Oyster Sausages. — Mince a pint of oysters, scalded
so as to make them hard, and also a pound of lean
sirloin of beef, and mix them ; season with pepper, salt,
and mace ; mix up well with the yolks of eight eggs,
shape them like sausages, and fry in butter. "J

11 To make Oyster Sausages. — Take the flesh of the
inside of a loin of mutton, and chop it as for force-meat,
and season it with spice ; then put to it fifty oysters,

* Mrs. Crowen's 'American Lady's Cookery Book.'
*f Idem. + Maitre Jacques.

M 'I

]64 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

chopped very small, with a little French bread grated,
and the yolks of four eggs, with a little chopped onion, a
little beef-suet, and a little lemon-peel. Roll it into
what form you please, and, if you do not use it, cover
it up, and it will keep a long time."

" To Mince Oysters. — Take half a hundred oysters,
and put them into warm water ; when they are ready
to boil, shift them into cold water ; then drain them,
and take that part only which is tender. If you mix
the flesh of carp with your oysters, it will increase your
mince, and give it a better flavour. Put a bit of butter,
shred parsley, scallions, and champignons, into a stew-
pan, and shake them over the fire, add a little flour,
and moisten them afterwards with a gill of white wine,
and as much soape maigre ; then put in your mince, and
let it stew till the sauce be consumed ; season it agree-
ably, and when you are ready to serve it, put in the
yolks of three eggs, beat up with some cream."*

" Oyster Force-meat. — Open carefully a dozen fine
oysters, take off the beards, strain their liquor, and
rinse the oysters in it; grate four ounces of the
crumb of a stale loaf into light crumbs, mince the
oysters, but not too small, and mix them with the
bread ; add an ounce and a half of good butter, broken
into minute bits, the grated rind of half a small lemon,
a small saltspoonful of pounded mace, some cayenne,
a little salt, and a large teaspoonf ul of parsley. Mingle
these ingredients well, and work them together with
the unbeaten yolk of an egg, and a little of the oyster
liquor, the remainder of which can be added to the
sauce, which usually accompanies this force-meat/'f

* ' The French Family Cook.' + Miss Acton's ' Modern Cookery.'

OSTREAD.E. OYSTER. 165

"Oysters and Chestnuts. — Dip some oysters into a
savory batter ; bread-crumb them, and fry them brown ,
In the same manner treat a similar number of blanched
Spanish chestnuts. Make a sauce with the oyster
liquor, a piece of butter rubbed in flour, and two
glasses of white wine. Stew the chestnuts in this •
add some yolk of egg to thicken it, and pour it upon
the oysters/'*

"Oyster Steak. — Take a steak double the usual
thickness, and with a very sharp knife divide it in the
centre from one side only, so as to form a sort of bag.
Open sufficient oysters to stuff the bag; season with
salt and pepper; add a lump of butter and some of
the oyster liquor; sew it up carefully, put it on a
gridiron, let it gradually cook so as to warm the
oysters right through. Serve hot with butter, pepper,
and salt."f

" Scalloped Oysters. — Scald and beard some dozens
of oysters ; strain the liquor into a stew-pan, and add
thereto two ounces of butter, mixed or kneaded with
two ounces of flour, a little cream, anchovy, nutmeg,
and cayenne ; stir the sauce over the fire to boil, and
reduce for ten minutes ; then add a couple of yolks of
eggs, and a little lemon-juice, and some chopped
parsley ; add the oysters, cut each in halves ; stir all
together over the fire for a few minutes, and fill some
scallop-shells with this preparation ; cover them over
with a thick coating of fried bread-crumbs ; place them
on a baking-sheet in the oven for five minutes, and
serve hot.^J If you have no scallop-shells, the deep

* ' Household Manuals : How to Cook Fish,' by Georgiaua Hill,
t ' All About Oysters.' % FrancatelU's ' Cook's Guide.'

166 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

shell of the oyster, well scoured, will serve the pur-
pose.

Many people, however, who prefer the real taste of
the oyster, and do not like to conceal it beneath that
of spice, prefer the old-fashioned way of scalloping
oysters, which is as follows : —

" Old way of Scalloping Oysters. — Beard the oysters ;
scald the beards in the liquor from the fish, then strain
them off; lay alternate layers of bread-crumbs, oysters,
and small bits of butter in the shells, very slightly
peppering them as you proceed. Pour the liquor in
which you scalded the beards, over them ; put them
into the oven till nicely browned, and if you find the
colour not bright enough, put them before the fire for
a few minutes, or salamander them. A little cream,
added after the shells are filled, but before they are
put in the oven, is a great improvement."

By lining the dish, and covering the oysters with
putf paste, this is converted into an Oyster Pie, which
makes an excellent dish.

" Scalloped Oysters. — Ostras en Concha, Spanish recipe.
— Select the largest shells, and scrub them very clean;
put four or six oysters into each, with their liquor, and
cover them with bread-crumbs, seasoned with pepper
and salt; then place the shells on the gridiron till the
fish is cooked."

" Oyster Fritters (2997).— Make a batter of flour,
milk, and eggs ; season with a very little nutmeg.
Beard the oysters, and put as many as you think
proper in each fritter."*

" Oyster Loaves. — Open the oysters, and save the
liquor ; wash them in it; then strain it through a sieve,

* ' Euquire Within upon Everything.'

0STREAD.E. OYSTER. 167

and put a little of it into a tosser, with a bit of butter
and flour, white pepper, a scrape of nutmeg, and a
little cream, stew them, cut in dice ; put them into
rolls sold for the purpose."*

11 An Oyster Loaf. — Cut round holes in the tops of
French rolls ; take out all the crumb, rub them over
the sides with a tender force-meat made" of fat oysters,
part of an eel, pistachio nuts, mushrooms, spice, and
the yolks of two hard eggs ; beat these well together
in a mortar, with a raw egg ; then fry the rolls crisp in
lard, and fill them with a quart of oysters ; the rest of
the eel cut like lard, spice, mushrooms, and anchovies
tossed up in their own liquor, and half a pint of white
wine ; thicken it with eggs, and a bit of butter rolled
in flour.^f

" Oysters and Macaroni. — Lay some stewed macaroni
in a deep dish ; put upon it a thick layer of oysters,
bearded, and seasoned with cayenne pepper and grated
lemon-rind. Add a small teacupful of cream. Strew
bread-crumbs over the top, and brown it in a pretty
quick oven. Serve hot with a piquante sauce.":}:

" Oyster Pie. — As you open the oysters separate them
from the liquor, which strain; parboil them, after
taking off the beards ; parboil sweetbreads, and cutting
them in slices, lay them and the oysters in layers ;
season very lightly with salt, pepper, and mace; then
put half a teacupful of liquor, and the same of veal
gravy. Bake in a slow oven ; and before you serve
put in a teacupful of cream, a little more oyster liquor,
all warmed, but not boiled ."§

* ' The English Cookery Book.'

f ' The Housekeeper's Pocket Book.'

X ' Household Manuals : How to Cook Fish.'

§ Murray's ' Modern Domestic Cookery.'

1B8 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

An Oyster Pie (old recipe) . — Parboil a quart of large
oysters in their own liquor ; mince them small, and
pound them in a mortar with pistachio-nuts, marrow,
and sweet herbs, an onion, savory, spices, and a little
grated bread, lay on butter, and close your pie.

Oyster Pie, another way. — Take a large dish, butter
it, spread a rich paste over the sides, and round the
edge ; but not at the bottom ; the oysters should be
fresh, and as large and fine as possible ; drain off part
of the liquor from the oysters ; put them into a pan,
season them with pepper, salt, and spice ; stir them
well with the seasoning ; have ready the yolks of eggs,
chopped fine, ;.nd grated bread; pour the oysters (with
as much of their liquor as you please) into the dish
that has the paste in it; strew over them the chopped
egg and grated bread ; roll out the lid of the pie, and
put it on, crimping the edge handsomely. Bake the
pie in a quick oven.

"Oyster and Eel Pie (old recipe). — Make puff paste
and lay it in your dish; then take great eels and flay
them, clean them, cut them in pieces, and wash them
dry. Lay some butter in your pye, and season your
eels with some pepper, salt, nutmeg, cloves, and mace ;
and put them in ; cover them all over with great
oysters, and add more of your beaten spices and salt,
cover the whole with butter, and put in two or three
spoonfuls of white wine ; so close it with paste, bake
it, and serve it in hot."

Oyster and Parsnip Pie. — Boil the parsnips tender
and cut them in slices, then line your dish with good
paste, and lay upon it some pieces of butter, then a
layer of parsnips, some spice, pepper, &c, then some
oysters, and yolks of hard-boiled eggs, then more

OSTREAD^. — OYSTER. 169

butter and spice, &c., then parsnips, then oysters, eggs,
&c., until your dish is filled. Put butter on the top of
all, and cover it all with paste ; bake half an hour, or
so, and when it comes out of the oven, pour over it
melted butter, and juice of lemon, and serve hot.

" Pickled Oysters. — Put two dozen of large oysters
into a stew-pan over a fire, with their liquor only, and
boil them five minutes; then strain the liquor into
another stew-pan, and add to it a bay-leaf, a little
cayenne pepper, salt, a gill and a half of vinegar, half
a gill of ketchup, a blade of mace, a few allspice, and
a bit of lemon-peel ; boil it till three parts reduced,
then beard and wash the oysters, put them to the
pickle, and boil them together two minutes. When
they are to be served up, place the oysters in rows,
and strain the liquor over them ; garnish the dish with
slices of lemon or barberries."*

Glamorganshire way of Pickling Oysters. — Beard them
nicely ; then slowly stew them in the liquor from their
shells, with a bay-leaf or two, and some whole black
pepper ; a very small quantity of vinegar is then added,
and they are placed in stone jars, corked, and covered
with pitch. They are then ready for the London
markets.

This oyster pickling may be seen going on in almost
every cottage. The oysters when raw sell at Is, the
hundred, and when pickled at about Is. 9d., or even
at 2s.

Soger's Recipe for Pickling Oysters for the London

Markets. — " Put the oysters, with their liquor, in an

earthen pan on the fire to simmer; take off the scum

as it rises; add some whole pepper, sliced ginger

* From an old Cookery Book.

170 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA..

(screen if possible), a few cloves, some chopped chillies,
and a little vinegar; simmer not longer than five
minutes, and take them out ; remove the beards, and
put the oysters in a barrel, and when the liquor is cold,
strain and add it."

Pickled Oysters. — Ostras en Escabechados, Spanish
recipe. — "Make a pickle of the liquor of the oysters,
chopped onions, parsley, garlic (this, of course, may be
omitted if not liked), bay-leaves, marjoram, salt, pepper,
butter into which flour has been rubbed, and a few
drops of vinegar ; when well thickened hy boiling, add
the oysters, and stir gently."

" Oyster Powder. — Open the oysters carefully, so as
not to cut them, except in dividing the gristle, which
attaches the shells ; put them into a mortar, and when
you have got as many as you can conveniently pound
at once, add about two drachms of salt to about a
dozen oysters; pound them, and rub them through the
back of a hair-sieve, and put them into a mortar again,
with as much flour (but previously thoroughly dried)
as will roll them into a paste ; roll this paste several
times ; lastly flour it, and roll it out the thickness of a
half-crown, and cut it into pieces about one inch square;
lay them in a Dutch oven, where they will dry so gently
as not to get burned; turn them every half-hour, and
when they begin to dry, crumble them; they will take
about four hours to dry; pound them, sift them, and put
them into dry bottles; cork and seal them. Three dozen
of natives require seven and half ounces of flour to
make them into a paste weighing eleven ounces, and
when dried six and half ounces. To make half a pint of
sauce, put one ounce of butter into a stew-pan, with
three drachms of oyster powder, and six tablespoonfuls

OSTREAD.E. OYSTER. 171

of milk ; set it on a slow fire, stir it till it boils, and
season it with salt; as a sauce it is excellent for fish,
fowls, or rump-steaks. Sprinkled on bread-and-butter
it makes a good sandwich."*

"Another Oyster Powder. — When the oysters are
prepared by simmering in their own liquor, cut them
across in thin slices ; dry them crisp, that they may
be reduced to fine powder. Pack and use them for
sauces, as truffles or morrels."t

" Oysters on Toast. — Open oysters, put them in a pan
with their liquor, a quarter of a teaspoonful of pepper,
a wine glass of milk, two cloves, and a small piece of
mace, if handy; boil a few minutes until set ; mix one
ounce of butter with half an ounce of flour; put it (in
small pieces) in the pan ; stir round, when near boiling
pour over the toast and serve. A little sugar and the
juice of a lemon is a great improvement/^

" Oyster Toast. — Beard and pound a few oysters in a
mortar ; when they form a paste add a little cream, and
season them with pepper ; get ready some nice pieces
of toast, spread the oyster paste upon them, and place
them for a few minutes in an oven to become warm.
A little finely chopped pickle may be thrown upon the
tops."§

" Oyster Ketchup. — Pound the fish, and add to each
pint of them one pint of sherry wine, one ounce of salt,
powdered mace two drachms, pepper one drachm.
Boil up, skim, strain ; add to each pint two tea-
spoonfuls of brandy, then bottle, to flavour sauces when
oysters are out of season." ||

* ' Enquire Within upon Everything.

•j- 'Indian Domestic Economy.'

% ' All About Oysters.' § Idem.

|j ' Dictionary of Practical Receipts,' by G. W. Francis.

172 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

u Oysters an Gratin. — Set a little cream in a pipkin,
with a piece of butter (the quantities to be judged ac-
cording to the size of the dish), and mingle them
gradually ; add to this a little anchovy sauce, cayenne
wine, and grated lemon-peel. Pour half of this in a
dish, lay in the oysters, and grate over them a little
Parmesan cheese and bread-crumbs (not too thick a
layer), seasoned in the usual way; then pour over
the rest of the cream and butter, and grate another thin
layer of Parmesan and bread-crumbs. Set it in a quick
oven, or in a Dutch-oven."*

In the Mediterranean, a species of oyster, viz.,
Spondylus gcederopus, is eaten both in Spain and in
Italy. The Spanish names for it are Ostia vermella, or
Ostiavermeya, and the Italian, Spuonnolo, and Copiza.

Fam. patellid^e.
patella.— limpet.

Patella vulgata, Linnaeus. Limpet. — Shell oval and
conical in shape; apex central, or nearly so, strong, some-
times with ribs diverging from the apex to the margin,
and sometimes quite smooth. Colours various, pale grey-
ish-yellow or greenish-brown, inside generally showing
the same colour through, and the markings of the ribs
distinctly towards the margin ; the inside of the apex
an opaque bluish-white, and the whole slightly polished.

The common limpet is found distributed all round
our coasts, where it is greatly valued as bait by fisher-
men, and Dr. Johnson calculated that in Berwick alone
there is an annual consumption of no fewer than

* Maitre Jacques.

PATELLID.E. LIMPET. 173

11,880,000 limpets for that purpose.* At low tide
limpets may be collected in numbers from the rocks
and. boulders. Some are seen safely ensconced in holes
or depressions made by means of the muscular action of
their foot or disk, which is the width of the shell ;
others are seen creeping about in search of fresh rest-
ing places, or food, with their tentacles slightly pro-
truding beyond the shell, till alarmed by some touch, or
otherwise; and they adhere with wonderful strength
to the rocks. Wordsworth says : —

" And should the strongest arm endeavour
The limpet from its rock to sever,
'Tis seen its loved support to clasp,
With such tenacity of grasp,
We wonder that such strength should dwell
In such a small and simple shell."

Dr. A. Hartwig, remarks in his ' Harmonies of Nature •
or, the Unity of Creation/ that the broad-soled foot of
the limpet acts as a powerful sucker, and that it has
been calculated that the larger species are thus able to
produce a resistence equivalent to the weight of 1 50 lbs.
which, considering the sharp angle of the shell, is more
than sufficient todefy the strength of a man toraisethem.

On the Devonshire coast I have found very laro-e
specimens of Patella vulgata, and worn quite smooth
some of the shells measuring as much as eight inches
in circumference.

Limpets, a foot in diameter, are found on the western
coast of South America, and are used by the natives as
basins.f

In many places limpets are used for food, especially
on the Continent, where they are of tener eaten than the

* Forbes and Hanley, ' Brit. Mollusca,' vol. ii. p. 425.

f Cuming, as quoted by Woodward, in ' Recent and Fossil Shells.'

174 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

periwinkle. At Naples they make them into soup, and
I am told it is an excellent dish. At Eastbourne we
have often seen the Irish reapers come down to the
shore and eat the limpets raw which they had knocked
off the rocks with their knives. The poorer classes at
Eastbourne also eat them constantly, the children
collecting them at low tide from the rocks. Mr.
Patterson, while residing", in 1837, near the town of
Larne, Co. Antrim, endeavoured to form some idea of
the quantity of the common limpet taken from the
rocks on that part of the coast, and used as food ; and
he had reason to believe that the weight of the boiled
tish was above eleven tons. Limpets ready boiled
are regularly sold in the fishmarket at Truro, at 1*. per
quart ; and at Plymouth they gather great numbers of
them (especially from the breakwater), as well as iu the
Isle of Man, where they are known by the name of
"flitters;" and in Scotland the juice of these shell-
fishes is mixed with oatmeal. In the Feroe Isles they
call them "flia;" and in 'Life in Normandy ' (vol. i.
p. -192), we are told "that limpets are constantly
eaten by the poor ; and that at Granville the children use
a square-pointed knife, with a thick back, for getting
them off the rocks; some having, in addition, small
wooden hammers : others only a stone in their right
hands. The edge of the knife was applied always on
one side, and never at the top of the shell ; a little sharp
tap was given, either with the hammer or stone, and
the fish fell at once.'' This reminds us of Hermippus,
who says : —

" And beating down the limpets from the rocks,
They wake a noise like castanets."*

* Athciiseug, 'Deipn.' bk. xiv. 3i).

PATELLID^l. LIMPET. 175

The Patellidce were also among the shellfish eaten
by the ancients ; Diphilus says they have a pleasant
flavour, are easily digested, and when boiled are
particularly nice.* It is a curious fact, and one which
is puzzling to archaeologists, that limpet shells should
be found in such abundance in cromlechs, both in the
Channel Islands and in Brittany, surrounding the
remains of the dead, often covering the bones, skulls,
&c, to the depth of two and three feet in thickness.
Mr. F. C. Lukis, in the l Journal of the Archaeological
Association ' (vol. i. p. 28), mentions finding limpet-
shells, mixed with earth, round the bones in the Crom-
lech du Tus, or de Hus, Guernsey. Again, in a Cromlech
in Jersey, discovered in April, 1848, Mr. Lukis adds
that there is a difficulty in solving the great question —
why such a mass of limpet shells should invariably
accompany these abodes of the dead ? They are found
not only in the earliest deposits, but also amongst the
more recent, f

The term " Cromlech," as applied to the Cromlech du
Tus, is a local name, used in the Channel Islands for a
subterranean chamber, lined with upright slabs, covered
by a roof of one or more slabs of stone, with a long
passage leading to it, formed in like manner of upright
slabs covered by large lintels, over which has been
raised a tumulus of earth; while our term Cromlech
is applied to those covered by one capstone only, with-
out any passage leading to them. J Those consisting
of chambers and a long entrance passage covered by
slabs, within a large tumulus of earth, as at Wellow,

* Athenoeus, 'Deipn.' vol. i. bk. iii. p. 152.
t ' Journal of the Archaeological Association/ vol. iv. p. 336.
t See Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, ' British Remains on Dartmoor '
1 Journal of the Archaeological Association,' vol. xviii. 1863.

176 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

near Stoney Littleton; at Rodmartin; at Uley ; and
at Nympsfield, are called Tumps. In speaking of
Cromlechs, in the Channel Islands, I do not therefore
allude to monuments such as we call Cromlechs ; which,
last, though probably sepulchral, have not yet been
found to contain interments.

We read that at the Cape of Good Hope, at White
Sands, also at Cape Point, and many other places along
the coast, there are to be seen a series of shell mounds,
containing large Patellidce, Haliotis and other shells.
The limpets are of so large a size that they make
convenient drinking-cups. All about the mounds are
to be found various stone implements used by the
people — either Bushmen, or Hottentots.*

In Britton's ' History of Dorset/ mention is made
of the finding of a small urn in a barrow in the parish
of Lulworth, about two inches high, and one inch in
diameter, neatly covered with the shell of a limpet ; but
it was quite empty. Necklaces of limpets and other
shells, strung together on fibre or sinews, are found
in early British graves. Beads made from the columella
of Strombus gigas are found in sepulchral remains in
Tennessee, Kentucky, and Indiana,f and the shells of
the Dentalium made into beads have been met with in
tumuli in Ohio.J In Egypt, on the mummies of children,
necklaces of natural shells, or shells figured in gold,
silver, precious stones, &c, are found — chiefly, accord-
ing to Passalacqua, met with on those of young
girls. §

* ' Notes by a Naturalist on the Challenger, 5 by H. N. Moseley.
f ' Prehistoric Remains,' by Dr. Daniel Wilson.
+ « Hint Chips.'

§ 'A History of Egyptian Mummies,' by Thomas Joseph Petti-
gtew, F.R.S.

PATELLID^. — LIMPET. 177

The women of the Andaman Islands wear various
ornaments, and, according to Mr. Ball, the most ex-
traordinary are the skulls of their defunct relatives,
festooned with strings of shells, which some of them
carry suspended from their necks.*

Limpet shells are used for mortar.

In the island of Herm, near Gruernsey, poultry are
fed on Patella vulgata ; but it is said that they will
not touch Patella atheletica, which is also considered
too tough for bait.

Sea-birds feed on the Patella, and Mr. Gatcombe, in
the Field, August, 1863, mentions having once taken
from the gullet of an oyster-catcher upwards of thirty
limpets. He also adds an account of a curious occur-
rence which took place on the Plymouth breakwater
some time ago, " One of the workmen employed on the
breakwater observed a sandpiper fluttering in a peculiar
manner, and discovered, on approaching it, that it had
been made prisoner by a limpet. It would appear that
in running about in search of food, the bird's toe had
accidentally got under a limpet, which, suddenly closing
to the rock, held it fast until the man came up, who
with his knife removed the limpet, and released the
bird."

The Cornish giant, Tregeagle (who is said to have
been a wicked seigneur, once residing in a mansion on
the site of Dozmare, or Dosmery Pool, by which it was
engulphed, and his park transformed into the barren
waste now known as Bodmin Moor,) is supposed to
haunt Dozmare Pool, and is condemned to the hope-
less task of emptying it with a single limpet shell,
which has a hole bored in it. Tregeagle was not an

* ' Juugle Life/

N

178 EDIBLE BItlTISH MOLLUSCA.

imaginary person, he really existed, and was the dis-
honest steward of Lord Robartes, of Lanhydrock.*

The French call this shell Lepas, Patelle, Jamhe, (Ed
de bouc,f Bernicle, Flie, and the very large ones are
called Ran, at Cherbourg (the same name as that apr
plied to the Buccinum, on that part of the coast) ; % the
Germans, call them Schusselmuschel, Napfmuschel, or
Napfschnecke ; the Spaniards, Diampa, Lampas, Laypas,
Lamparas, Lamparons, Conchelos, Cucas, Patgellidas,
and Barretets ; the Portuguese, Lapa ; and the Italians,
Lepade; and in Cornwall limpet shells are called
Crogans, also B>rnigan } and Brennick.§

To cook Limpets. — Boil them for a few minutes, and
take care that the soft part is not broken, as it spoils
them ; this part is more liable to be broken in the
autumn.

Limpet Soup. — Wash them, and free the shells from
seaweed, &c, put them into a saucepan and parboil
them. Take them out of the shells ; chop up some
parsley, and put it, with a tablespoonful of oil, or an
ounce of lard or butter, into a saucepan, and fry until
it becomes brown. Add a pint of water, and, when
boiling, throw in the limpets, with a teaspoonful of
anchovy sauce, some pepper, and boil again for half an
hour ; or, if preferred, stew them before putting them
into the soup.

To dress Limpets. — Take those of a large size, and
fry them with a little butter, pepper, and vinegar. The

* Murray's ' Handbook to Devon and Cornwall.'
f 'British Conchology,' vol. iii. p. 241.

X ' Kssai d'un Catalogue des Mollusques Marins, Terrestres, et Flu-
viatilesy par J. A Mace.

§ « History of Cornwall,' by the Rev. R. Polwhele.

HALIOTID^. EAR-SHELL, OR SEA-EAR. 179

smaller ones are better boiled, and then eaten with
vinegar and pepper.

Eastbourne method of Cooking Limpets. — Put them
on the gridiron till all the water boils out of them, and
then they are fit to eat.

Dr. Jeffreys speaks highly of roasted limpets, having
tasted them in the island of Herm. The limpets were
placed on the ground, arid laid in their usual position,
and cooked by being covered with a heap of straw,
which had been set on fire, about twenty minutes before
dinner.*

"Limpet Sauce. — Choose clean-shelled limpets, not
covered with barnacles, steep them in fresh water, and
then heat them in a close-covered saucepan until they
part easily from the shells. They yield a rich brown
liquor, in which, after being shelled, they may be
stewed for half an hour. Thicken the liquor with but-
ter and flour ; strain and season with pepper, cayenne,
and salt, and a slight flavouring of lemon-juice or
vinegar. The limpets, being tough and indigestible,
are not returned into the sauce." f

Fam. HALIOTIDiE.
HALIOTIS.— EAK-SHELL, or SEA-EAR.

Haliotis tuberculata, Linngeus. Ear-shell, or Ve-
nus s Ear. — Shell ear-shaped ; short flat spire, lateral,
and nearly concealed ; aperture wide ; a longitudinal
row of perforations on the left margin ; the interior
pearly and iridiscent.

* ' British Conchology,' vol. iii. p. 239.
f ' Practical Cookery,' by Hartlaw Keid.

N2 **

180 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

The Ear-shell, Ormei\ Oreille de Mer, or Si-ieu (six
yeux), is said to take its place in the British fauna
solely on account of its being found in the Channel
Islands, where it is very abundant ; but it is still more
so on the coast of France, between St. Malo and Gran-
ville, and great quantities are brought from thence to
the Jersey market, which is well stocked during the
summer, and they are sold at the rate of sixpence a
dozen. They are also sold in the market at Cherbourg,
and said to be found on the rocks of the breakwater.
This celebrated shellfish has been praised by old
authors as a most delicate morsel. One writer speaks
of the Ormer, or Auris marina, as " a lump of white
pulp, very sweet and luscious/' and another, as
quoted by Professor Ansted, in his ' Channel Islands,'
mentions "a large shellfish, taken plentifully at low
tides, called an Ormond, that sticks to the rocks, whence
we beat them off with a forck or iron hook. 'Tis
much bigger than an oyster, and like that, good
either fresh or pickled, but infinitely more pleasant to
the gusto, so that an epicure would think his palate in
paradise if he might but always gormandize on such
delicious ambrosia.'" Athenaaus also tells us that the
toria, or ears, are most nutritious when fried. Again,
he says, " But otaria (and they are produced in the
island called Pharos, which is close to .Alexandria) are
more nutritious than any of the before-mentioned fish
(speaking of cockles, sea-urchins, pinnas, &c), but they
are not easily secreted. But Antigonus, the Carystian,
says this kind of oyster is called by the ^Eolians the
'Ear of Venus/"*

Captain Beechey, in his ' Voyage to the Pacitic,'

* Athena.'us, ' Deipu.' vol. i. bk. iii. 35, p. 146.

HALIOTID.E. EAR-SHELL, OR SEA-EAR. 181

mentions the abundance of two species of Haliotis in the
Bay of Monteroy, and that they are much sought after
by thelnd ains, not only for food, but because the shells
are used for ornaments, and the natives decorate their
baskets with pieces of them. Haliotis gigantea is
eaten by the Californian Indians, and the Chinese
are very partial to Venus J s-ears, which form part of a
Chinese dinner, with sea-snails, shark's fins, &c. The
Koreaus dry great numbers of Haliotis and string
them upon rattans for the Chinese market, and they
sell at the rate of 300 for a dollar.* The shells of
Haliotis tuberculoma are said by M. Debeaux to be used
in medicine by the Chinese. The Japanese also use
the HaliotidaB as food, and make them into soup.

The large Haliotis gigantea they call Awabi, and
Haliotis supertexta is Tokobushi. f

TI13 natives of New Zealand call Haliotis iris the
mutton fish.

The Guernsey ear-shells are used by farmers to
frighten away small birds from the standing corn — two
or three of these shells being strung together and sus-
pended by a string from the end of a large stick, so as
to make a clattering noise when moved by the wind.};

Haliotida} in great -quantities are brought to Bir-
mingham from various parts of the world, for making
mother-of-pearl ornaments, buttons, and inlaying
papier-mache tables, &c, and this latter art of orna-
mentation was introduced by George Suter, a decorator
in the employ of Messrs. Jennens and Bettridge, who
patented the invention in 1825. An instance has been

* ' Travels of a Naturalist in Japan and Manchuria,' by Arthur
Adams, F.L.S., R.N.

f 'Japan,' by J. J. Rein. J 'British Conchology.'

182 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

known of a ship arriving at London from Panama,
bringing more than two millions of pearl-shells for
the English markets. During the last few years
pearl-shells have risen in price, and in 1883, the value
had increased from £160 to £240 and £250 per ton.*

The wholesale price in the Channel Islands for shells
of the first quality is £10 per ton, and by retail they
are sold at Id. per lb.

Mother-of-pearl, however, is not only made from the
Haliotidce, but the snail pearl-shell Turbo cornutus,
the white pearl-shell, Meleagrina margaritifera, are also
used in this manufacture.

Mr. John P. Turner, in his account of the 'Bir-
mingham Button Trade/ says, " That no elaborate
machinery is employed in the production of pearl but-
tons. " Hitherto skilled hand labour, assisted by
nothing but the foot-lathe, was alone employed. The
mother-of-pearl which is cut into buttons, is of various
kinds. The white-edged Macassar shells (Meleagrina
margaritifera), fished almost entirely from the seas
round Macassar, in the East Indies, are the finest in
size and quality. The yellow-edged Manilla shells are
more brittle in turning, and are used chiefly for knife-
handles in the Sheffield trade. The Bombay and Alex-
andria shells are smaller in size and less delicate in
tint and clearness, and are found in the Persian Gulf
and the Red Sea; they vary very much in quality and
usefulness.

The Black shell, one of the Haliotidce,, is brought
from the Archipelago of the Pacific Ocean, and is
so called because, when polished, it throws out a very
dark shade, full, however, of beautiful rainbow tints

* Times, Feb. 13th, 1883.

HALIOTID^. EAIt-SHELL, OR SEA-EAR. 183

exquisitely blended. The Panama shells are the
poorest species of shell, and are used for the inferior
kinds of buttons.*

.Curiously carved pearl-shells, the work of the monks
at Bethlehem, are sold by them to pilgrims and others
who visit the Holy Land, and Bruce states that mother-
of-pearl inlaying was brought to great perfection at
Jerusalem. The nacre was from the Lulu el Berber?,
or Abyssinian oyster. Great quantities were brought
daily from the Red Sea to Jerusalem, and crucifixes,
wafer-boxes, and beads were made and sent to the
Spanish dominions in the New World. f

In the days of luxury at Rome, the panels in the
golden house of Nero were of mother-of-pearl, enriched
with gold and gems ; and dishes, bowls, and cups of
pearl-shell, were greatly esteemed in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. Leland, in his ' Collectanea/
describes the christening of the child of the Lady
Cicile, " wife to John, Erie of Este Frieseland, called the
Marquis of Bawden, and sister to Eryke, King of
Sweden, and the decorations cf the chapel, &c. The
christening took place at the f Queene's Palleyes,
Westminster/ 30th Sept., Anno 1565, and the chap-
pell was hung with cloathe of gold. The communion
table was richly furnished with plate and Jewells, and
amongst other ornaments were a ' Fountayne and
Basen of mother-of-pearle, two shippes of mother-of-
pearle, and another shipe of mother-of-pearle.^ J

Mr. G. R. Corner mentions a very elegant cup in

* As quoted in ' The Midland Hardware District,' edited by Samuel
Timmius, containing 'Papier Mache Manufacture,' by W. C. Ritken,
Birmingham.

f Bruce's ' Travels,' see Appendix, vol. viii. pp. 337, 338.

± ' Gems and Jewels.

184 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

the possession of the Queen, made of staves of turbo-
shell mounted on a stem and foot of silver gilt. He
also adds that the polished, but unmounted turbo, has
been employed as a festive cup in Wales, to a com-
paratively late period.*

We read also of a watch set in " mother-of-pearle,
with three pendantes of gold, garnished with sparkes
of rubies, and an opall in everie of them, and three
small pearles pendent/' which Lord Russell presented
to Queen Elizabeth ; and Margaret, Countess of Derby,
presented her with another, as a New Year's gift. " It
was a white bear of gold and mother-of-perle holding
a ragged staffe (the ' Leicester' device) standing upon
a tonne of golde, whearin is a clocke, the same tonne-
staffe garnished with dyamondes and rubies."t The
Cathedral at Panama has two towers, with short steeples
on them painted white, and these steeples are said by
Mr. Elwes to be faced with the large pearl-oyster
shells ; but they do not look well.J

Glass is seldom seen in Manilla for glazing windows,
but the shells of the Chinese oyster (Placnna placenta)
are used instead ; § and in certain parts of Ainoy, the
municipal lamps are made in the shape of a granite
shaft, surrounded by a wooden box glazed with shells.
The shells are well washed, and scrubbed, and then cut
into squares, and slid into grooves cut to receive them
in the frame of the lamp. ||

The scabbard of the sword of the Emperor Napoleon
I., which he wore when First Consul, is of gold and

* ' Journal of Archaeological Association,' vol. xiv. pp. 344, 345.
t ' Curiosities of Clocks and Watches,' &c, hy Edward J. Wood.
$ « W.S.W., or a voyage in that direction to the West Indies.'
§ Collingwood's « Naturalist's Rambles,' p. 294.
|| ' Flight of the Lapwing.'

HALI0TIDJ5. EAR-SHELL, OR SEA-EAR. 185

mother-of-pearl; and mock pearls are now much used
for jewellery made of the pearl-shell; the effect being
nearly as good as real pearls, and far better than the
most successful imitations in paste; and Theophilus, in
his ' Essay on various Arts/ speaks of " sea-shells which
are cut into pieces, and filed as pearls, sufficiently use-
ful upon gold."* Various kinds of shells are used for
ornamental purposes, on account of their beautiful
nacreous layer : e. g. a Mediterranean species of the
little Phasianella, which is made into necklaces, ear-
rings, &c, and known in England as Venetian shells ;
and in Paris I noticed some pretty bracelets, brooches,
earrings, necklaces, and studs, made of the Trigonia
pectinata, an Australian bivalve, so arranged as to show
the bright pinkish-purple nacre inside the valves. Mr,
Moseley tells us that numbers of this species of Trigonia
are dredged in Port Jackson, Sydney, and that this
shell is especially interestiug to the naturalist, because
it occurs fossil in secondary deposits in Europe, and
was long supposed to be entirely a thing of the past,
until discovered living in Sydney Harbour, f Pearl-
oyster shells, set in whale's teeth, are considered to be
the most valuable ornament that can be possessed by a
Figian ; he wears it hanging on his breast, and he is
forbidden by the chiefs to sell it. J In the Api Islands
nearly all the men wear a small triangular ornament
cut out of the septa of the pearly nautilus shell, threaded
by the siphon hole in it, tied to their necks; and I
have seen similar pieces of shell from Queensland,

* Theophilus, * Qui et Rugerus,' &c, translated by Robert Hendrie
chap. xcv. p. 391.

+ 'A Naturalist on the Challenger,' by H. N. Moseley, p. 148.
X Idem.

186 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

which are worn by the <c gins" on Sandy Island, Mary-
borough, and strung as necklaces in the same manner.
They prize them very highly, and it required much per-
suasion to induce them to part with those we have.
The Miranha Indians wear on holidays a large button
made of the pearly river-shell, in a slit cut in the
middle of each nostril ;* and Sir Samuel Baker states
that the women of the Shir tribe, living on the White
Nile, make girdles and necklaces of small pieces of
river mussel-shells, threaded upon the hair of the
giraffe's tail, and that the effect is nearly the same as a
string of mother-of-pearl buttons, f In an old book
of recipes entitled the ' Druggist's Shop opened/
it says, " Mother-of-pearl is of an alkalious substance,
and Cordial ; good against Faintings, Swoonings, and
Palpitations of the Heart, .... it is good against
Melancholy, and Malign, and burning Fevers, Measles,
Smallpox, &c"

A large species of Haliotis is eaten at the Cape of
Good Hope and is prepared by pounding. No iron is
allowed to touch it in preparation ; it must be loosened
from the shell with horn or wood implements, and then
pounded with stone or wood, and finally stewed. It is
considered that if iron touches the fish it becomes
rigidly contracted, and hopelessly tough. J

Through the kindness of Mr. Morton, of St. Cle-
ments, Jersey, I am enabled to give the following
recipe for cooking the Sea-ear : —

" To dress Sea-ears to Perfection. — Take them out of
the shells, and well scrub them ; then let them simmer

* ' A Naturalist on the Amazon,' by H. Bates, vol. ii. p. 197.
t ' Albert Nyanza,' Baker, vol. i. p. 84.
£ * A Naturalist on the Challenger.'

LITTORINIDiE. — PERIWINKLE. 187

for two or three hours, until they are quite tender,
after which they may be scalloped as an oyster, or put
into the pan to brown with butter. "

They require to be well beaten with a stick or
hammer, to make them tender, if they are to be fried ;
and they are likewise sometimes pickled with vinegar.

Haliotis tuberculata is eaten in Italy, and is called
Orrechiale; and Orrechio di San Pietro in the Adriatic ;
in Sicily, Patella reale ; Lapa burr a in Portugal ; and in
Spain, Peneyras, Lamjpreas, Mangulinos, Joeles, Senori-
nas, Gribas, Oreya de Mar, and Orella de Mar* The
Germans call it the Meerohr, or Ohrsnecke.

Fam. LITTORINIM].
L1TT0RINA.— PERIWINKLE.

Littorina littorea, Linnaeus. Periwinkle. — Shell
spiral, solid ; whorls six or seven in number, covered
with longitudinal stria?; apex very pointed ; aperture
nearly round and large ; pillar lip flat, broad, and
w r hite ; outer lip sharp, sometimes white and occasion-
ally showing the colour of the exterior of the shell
through. Interior of the shell a dark brown. Oper-
culum dark horn-colour.

In Anglo-Saxon, the periwinkle is called Sea-swmgl,
or Sea-snail ; in Ireland, the Horse-winkle and Shelli-
midy forragy, and at Belfast, Whelks ; in Cornwall,
Gwean, or Guihan ; and in the north, Corvins ; and the
French give it the name of Sabot, or wooden shoe, as

* ' Exploracion Cientifica de las Costas del Ferrol,' M. de la P.
Graells.

188 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

well as Vignot or Vignette, and Bigorneau. In Brittany
it is called, as elsewhere observed, Vrelin, or Brelin ;*
and the Spanish Dame for it is Minchas. Few persons
who have paid a visit to the seaside can have failed to
remark this common shell, which, at low tide, may be
seen crawling over the tangled masses of seaweed.
Many pleasant hours do children pass in gathering
basketfuls of periwinkles, taking them home and boil-
ing them, and enjoying a hearty meal, with the
accompaniment of good thick slices of bread-and-butter.

Periwinkles vary much in colour, some being of a
dark olive-green, nearly black, or of a pale greenish-
white, like the specimen figured ; and others red or
rufous-brown, with narrow bands of smoke colour.
Varieties of form also occur, and I procured from
Exmouth two curious specimens, with the whorls
angular and the edges sharp, instead of rounded.

Athenaaus, in his ' Deipnosophists/ mentions several
kinds of periwinkles. He says, " Of the periwinkle,
the white are the most tender, and they have no dis-
agreeable smell, .... but of the black and red kinds
the larger are exceedingly palatable, especially those
that are caught in the spring. As a general rule all of
them are good for the stomach, and digestible when
eaten with cinnamon and pepper. "

There is a large consumption of these little mollusks
in London ; and Billingsgate market is supplied from
various parts of the British coast; the largest supply is
in May and June, and they sell at one shilling a measure.
Mr. Patterson, of Belfast, states, in his ' Introduction
to Zoology,' that quantities of periwinkles are annually
shipped from Belfast for London, and in 1861 the
* • British Conchology,' vol. iii. p. 371.

LITTORINID^. PERIWINKLE. 189

amount was 3394 bags, each containing about 3
bushels, and weighing 3i cwt., so that the periwinkles
exported in that year exceeded 10,000 bushels, and
weighed nearly 600 tons.

There are extensive periwinkle grounds at the mouth
of Pagham Harbour, which are visited every low tide
by women and children, who gather large quantities,
and send them to Brighton and Worthing, and they
are sold at 8d. per gallon. The Mersey flats supply
good periwinkles.

In the Orkneys, at Stromness, I am told that they
are collected in sacks, and sent south to the different
markets. Professor Simmonds states that the annual
consumption of periwinkles in Loudon, in 1858, was
estimated at 76,000 baskets, weighiug 1900 tons, and
valued at £15,000 ; further, that the inhabitants of
Kerara, near Oban, gather them, and get sixpence a
bushel for collecting them, and forward them from
Oban to Glasgow, thence to Liverpool, en route for
London. About thirty tons are sent up to London
from Glasgow. Mr. A. Morton tells me that in Jersey
the market is supplied with periwinkles brought from
Southampton, those found in the island being very
small; and occasionally a few pints of the Trochus
appear in the market, and are sold as winkles. Trochus
zizyphinus, and Trochus cinerarius, are said by M. le Doc-
teur Ozenne to be eaten at Toulon, and on the coast of La
Manche, and from experience I can recommend the
common Trochus crassas, simply boiled and eaten as
periwinkles, the flavour resembling the latter, and
being quite as sweet and palatable. In Spain the name
for the latter is CaricoJes franciscanos, and Mvnchas.

Both Trochidce and Aporrhais pes-jjelecani are sold

190 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

in the market at Palma, Majorca, for eating purposes ;
and in Italy the latter is also eaten, and is known at
Venice and at Trieste, by the name of Zamarugola.*

The Chinese are very partial to sea-snails, and we
read in a description given of a Chinese dinner, that
the second course consisted of a ragout made of them.

At Macao, these sea-snails are white, but at Ningpo
they are green, viscous, and slippery, and by no means
easy to pick up with chop-sticks. Their taste re-
sembles the green fat of the turtle. It is curious that
the most abundant shell found in the Scotch kjokken-
moddings is the periwinkle, and it is also met with in
great numbers in the Danish shell-mounds.

Periwinkle Soup. — Take a pint and a half or a quart of
periwinkles, wash them well, and boil them in a sauce-
pan with a handful or two of salt, to enable you to pick
out the fish easily. Put a little dripping or butter into a
saucepan, with an onion or carrot, some chopped parsley,
and a sprig of thyme, and fry until it becomes brown.
Add a pint of water to this, and as soon as it boils put
in the periwinkles (which have been previously picked
out of their shells), with a little pepper and salt, and
let the whole boil again for half an hour.

To boil Periwinkles. — It is only necessary to put them
into a stew-pan with as much water as will prevent
the bottom from burning, as the liquor oozing from
them will be sufficient for the purpose ; when the shells
open wide enough to extract the fish, they will be
sufficiently done.f

Rote. — It is necessary to throw into the stew-pan a
handful or two of salt with the periwinkles, otherwise

* ' British Conchology,' vol. iv. p. 252.
t Murray's 'Modern Cookery Book.'

MURICID.E. WHELK. 191

half the fish could not be picked out. The "opening of
the shell/' refers, we conclude, to the falling oat of the
operculum.*

Fam. MURICIDiE.

BUCCINUM.— WHELK.

Buccindm undatum, Linnseus. Whelk. — Shell ovate,
with eight whorls, more or less inflated, covered with
transverse coarse strias; waved or undulated obliquely ■,
covered with a yellowish-brown epidermis ; leno-th
about four inches. The aperture large, nearly half the
length of the body whorl. Columella strong, pillar lip
smooth, and bent back ; interior white, very polished,
sometimes lemon-colour, or orange ; canal short ; oper-
culum of a reddish horn colour.

The shell of the common whelk, or buckie, the Buccin
onde and Ran of the French, varies very much in colour,
being sometimes yellowish, without bands, and other
specimens having chestnut spiral bands, or wavy
blotches. White varieties are occasionally taken, and
the shell figured, being dredged up in deep water, has
still the rough olivaceous-coloured epidermis on it.
It is found often on the beach, and is a great enemy to
other mollusks, boring holes in their shells, and sucking
the pieces of the fish within, by means of its spiny
tongue. Dr. Harvey, in his ' Seaside Book/ says, " that
the proboscis of the whelk consists of two cylinders,
one within the other, the outer of which serves for the
attachment of the motor muscles, and the general
protection of the organ ; while the inner, opening near

* M. S. L.

192 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

the extremity with a longitudinal mouth, armed with
two strong cartilaginous lips, encloses the tongue, and
a great part of the oesophagus. The tongue is armed
with short spines, and acting in concert with the hard
lips, which can be opened or shut, or strongly pressed
together, it forms a sort of rasp or auger, by which very
hard substances are rapidly perforated; and then the
tongue being protruded, the hooked spines with which it
is armed, are admirably fitted for the collection of food."
Whelks are taken in great numbers in wicker baskets
baited with offal, and Pliny describes the taking of
" purple fish " by a similar method, viz., in a kind of
osier kipe, called Nassis, baited with cockles.* Billings-
gate market is chiefly supplied from Harwich and Hull,
and some of the steamers from the North bring six or
seven tons at a time.f Mr. Charles Harding, of King's
Lynn, informs us that the principal sources of the
supply of whelks " on that part of the coast are as
follows : Saltfleet, about twenty miles from Grimsby,
Sherringham, near Cromer, Lynn Deeps, Docking
Channel, Blakeney Coast, Wells, Boston Deeps, Bran-
caster, Thornham, and Hunstanton. The Lynn fishery
supplies about 20,000 bags, or 1250 tons of whelks a
year. . . . The average amount paid for them before
the expense of boiling and carriage is about £10,000.
The Great Grimsby fishery supplies about 150,000
wash of whelks annually. A wash contains 21 quarts
and a pint, and the average price for the season would
run about 3*. a wash, or a total of £22,500. ,, J

* Pliny's ' Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. p. 445.
f ' Curi<Mt£efl of Food,' p. 345.

t ! Molluscs, Mussels, Whelks,' &c , by Charles Harding. ' Papers of
the Conferences held in connection with the Great International Fisheries

Exhibition.'

MURICID^. — WHELK. 193

Whelks are sold at Is. 6d. to 2s. a measure ; and are
in season from August to September, though they are
really good to eat at any time. Children are frequently
seen buying a saucer of whelks in London in the spring ;
and the shellfish shops near Billingsgate market are
well stocked with them. There are, as Woodward
remarks, two different shellfish sold in London under
the name of Whelks or Buckies, namely, the common
Buccinum undatum, and the more prized Fusus antiquos.
Whelks are very troublesome to the lobster-fishers,
for they often devour the bait, and I have seen at
St. Margaret's-at-Cliffe, on the Kentish coast, the
lobster-pots drawn up, one after the other, baitless,
and full of these greedy mollusks ; most trying to the
poor fishermen, especially when bait was scarce, and
they had been obliged to walk some miles in the
morning to purchase it.

On some parts of the coast the fishermen use *the
Buccinum for bait for the long-line fishing, and Mr.
Smethurst, of Grimsby, says that when the fishermen
get on to what is called the " shawl " of the Dogger
Bank, in the spring, when the fish (such as cod, ling,
halibut, skate and haddock), begin to accumulate in
the warm weather, whelks are used as bait, and that
when they fished at the north end of the Dogger, at
the fall of the year, and in deeper water, lampreys
were used along with whelks*

The Lamprey (Petromyzon fluviatilis) is considered
very valuable as bait, and in the winter and spring
numbers are found in the river Trent, at Sawley, in
Leicestershire, and are collected in baskets from the
weirs to which they adhere, and sent off alive in
* « Mollusks, Mussels, Whelks,' &c., by Charles Harding.

O

194 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

large cans to Hull, and other places for the cod-fishery.
This bait-fishing lasts about a fortnight.

The fishermen know whelks by the following names,
viz., Couches or Buckies; and at Youghal they call
them Googawns, and Cuckoo shells.

In ' Popular History of the Mollusca/ by Miss Roberts,
she mentions this species of shell being used in North
Wales as trumpets by the farmers, for calling their
labourers ; and shells of a similar kind are also used
iu Muscovy and Lithuania by the herdsmen for col-
lecting their cattle, horses, mules, goats, and sheep.
The Italian herdsmen use them also. Dr. William
Russell tells us, that at Casamicciola, in the Island of
Ischia, morning, noon, and night, the air was filled with
the monotonous notes of conch shells, sounded by the
watchers over the vineyards and gardens, to scare away
thieves and birds.*

hi some parts of Staffordshire the farmers call up
their cattle by means of a horn or trumpet. In Tahiti
shells were also used as trumpets — a species of murex
being the kind generally employed for that purpose.
The largest shells were selected, sometimes a foot in
diameter at the mouth. A perforation, about an inch
in diameter, was made near the apex of the shell, in
which was inserted a bamboo cane, three feet in length,
secured by being bound to the shell, the aperture
rendered air-tight by the outsides of it being cemented
with a resinous gum from the bread-fruit tree. These
shells were blown when any procession marched to the
temple, and at other religious ceremonies; besides being
used by the herald, and on board the native fleets. The

* ' Memories of Ischui,' ' Nineteenth Century,' Sept. 1883.

MURTCIDiE. WHELK. 195

sound is described as very loud, monotonous, and
dismal.

We are told that in the island of Tanna, in the New-
Hebrides, shell trumpets are blown as signals to the
disease-makers, or sorcerers, to entreat them to stop
plaguing their victims. u These disease-makers col-
lected any nahak, or rubbish, that had belonged to any
one, such as the skin of a banana he had eaten, wrapped
it in a leaf like a cigar, and burnt it slowly at one end.
As it burnt, the owner's illness increased ; and if it was
burnt to the end, he died ; therefore, as soon as a man
fell ill, feeling sure that some sorcerer was burning his
rubbish, shell trumpets, which can be heard for miles,
are blown as a signal to the sorcerers to stop, and wait
for the presents which should be sent in the morning.
When a disease-maker fell ill himself, he too believed
that some one was burning his rubbish, and had his
shells blown for mercy." *

The large chank-shell, Turbinella rapa, is a chief
instrument of the Buddhists, who blow three times a
day on this sacred shell, to summon believers to wor-
ship ; and the same authority states that, according to
the most ancient annals of the Cingalese, the chank-
shell is sounded in one of the superior heavens of the
demigods (similar to the conch-blowing tritons of
Grecian Mythology) in honour of Buddha, as often as
the latter wanders abroad on the earth. f Sir J. E.
Tennent mentions that this chank-shell is exported
from Ceylon to India as a wind instrument, and to
be sawn into rings for anklets and bracelets ; and also

* Turner, ' Polynesia,' as quoted in Taylor's ' History of Mankind,'
p. 3 28.

t ' Voyage of the Novara.'

%

196 FDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

that a chank, in which the whorls were reversed, and
ran from right to left, instead of from left to right, was
regarded with such reverence, that a specimen formerly
sold for its weight in gold, but that now one may be had
for £4 or £5. The Chinese also hold reversed chank-
shells in special veneration, and give high prices for
them. They are kept in the Pagodas by the priests
and used on special occasions, and the consecrated oil
is kept in one of these sinistrorsal Turbinellidce, with
which the Emperor is anointed at his coronation.*
From the earliest ages the Gulf of Manaar lias been
fished for chanks. Perforated conch shells, both a
Triton (T. variegatum ?), and a large conical Strombus,
perforated at the apex of the spire, not on the side of
one of the upper whorls, as in the case of the Triton,
are used by the natives of New Guinea, Humboldt
Bay, or u Talok Linrju." — They are highly prized by
them and make a booming noise, t

A species of Triton was used formerly by the Indians
of South America as a trumpet, and a specimen was
dug up at Canete, in Peru. The shell was called
" Bosina," on account of the sound produced by blowing
into it resembling the roar of a bull, and it was used
to announce the approach of any great man into a town.
It was ornamented with tassels of human hair, and a
leather strap of exquisite workmanship. Mr. Walter
Shaw, of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, at
Callao, is said to have it in his possession. J

Dr. Potter, in his ' Archaeologia Greeca/ vol. ii.,
states that the ancient Greeks used shells as trumpets

* Lubbock's ' Prebistoric Times,' vol. i. p. 222.

t ' A Naturalist on the ' Challenger.'

$ ' Two Years in Peru,' by Thomas Hutchinson,' vol. i. p. 134.

MURICID.E. — WHELK. 197

as the Spaniards do at the present day ; and that the
first Grecian signals were lighted torches thrown from
both armies, by men who were priests of Mars, and
that these signals being laid aside, shells of fishes suc-
ceeded, which were sounded in the manner of trumpets,
which in those days were not invented. Hence Theog-
nis's riddle may easily be interpreted ; —

" A sea-inhabitant with living mouth
Spoke to me to go home, though dead it was.'*

Triton's shell-trumpet is famous in poetical story,
whence Ovid, speaking of Neptune, says : —

11 Already Triton at his call appears
Above the waves a Tyriari robe he wears;
Awl in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.
The Sov'reigu bids him peaceful sounds inspire,
And give tlie waves the signal to retire ;
His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent,
Grows by degrees into a large extent." — Dryden.

And most of the poets mention this custom in their
description of primitive wars.

Some of the North American Indian tribes hold sea-
shells in great reverence, and it is said that the Omaha*
possessed a sacred shell which they transmitted from
generation to generation. A skin lodge was built for
it, and a man appointed as guardian, who resided in the
lodge. It was placed on a stand and never allowed to
touch the earth, and was concealed from sight by a
number of mats made of strips of skins plaited. The
whole formed a large package, and tobacco, roots of
trees, and other objects were suspended from it. No
one dared to open all these coverings to see the sacred
sliell, for if they attempted to look upon it, they were
struck with instant and total loss of sight. The Indians
took the shell with them to all the national hunts, and,

198 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

before going any expedition against their enemies, con-
sulted it. The medicine men seated themselves round
the sacred lodge, the lower part of which was thrown
up like a curtain, and the exterior mat was carefully
removed from the shell, that it might have air. Some
of the tobacco consecrated by having been long sus-
pended to the coverings of the shell, was taken by the
medicine men, and smoked to the "Great Medicine/'
During the ceremony every one listened most atten-
tively, hoping to hear a sound proceed from the shell.
At length some one imagined he heard a noise resem-
bling a forced expiration of air from the lungs, and
this was considered a favourable omen, and the tribe
prepared for the expedition confident of success. If
on the contrary the shell obstinately remained silent,
the result of the expedition was regarded as doubtful.*
The natives of Usambara, in South Africa, according to
the late Mr. Keith Johnson, the leader of the East
African Expedition, in 1879, attach marvellous powers
to a large land shell, a species of Achatina, imagining
that it can ward off all forms of evil and witchcraft, and
for this reason it was held in high repute, and they
place the dead shells in little enclosures of stone in
their fields, and at the gateways of their villages, which
are thus considered safe from the attacks of the enemy,
or from disease .f

Dr. Troost, in an account of some ancient remains
discovered by him in Tennesee, mentions the finding
of a large conch shell (Cassis flammea), with the

* Long, ' Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains,' 1823,
as quoted in ' Flint Chips,' by Edward T. Stevens, pp. 448, 449.

f ' Notes on the Geology of Asainbam,' published in the ' Proceeding*
of the Royal Geographical Society,' Sept. 1879.

MURICID^. — WHELK. 199

interior whorls and columella removed, so that nothing
remained but the exterior portion of the shell, which
was open in front, and in it was placed a rudely shaped
idol, in the form of a kneeling human figure, made of
clay with pounded shells. It was ploughed up in the
Sequatchy Valley.*

Conch shells are used in the manufacture of shell
cameos, and are known as king, queen (Cassis Mada-
gascar ien sis), and common conch-shells. Large quan-
tities are exported from the Bahamas, and the beautiful
pale pink pearl is found in the common species The
value of shells exported from thence is £1200 per
annum, and of pearls £3000 per annum, and it is also
stated that the bait used in line-fishing is usually the
conch, and that the fish are drummed up by striking
two conch-shells together. Ground-bait is used at the
same time, as in English rivers. f

The shells of Strombus gigas are used not only for
making shell cameos, but also in the manufacture of
porcelain, and it is stated that in 1850, about 300,000
of these shells were imported to Liverpool for the latter
purpose. According to M. Beau, in the Island of
Martinique the Creole cooks have recourse to Strombus
gigas during the fasting season. The tish, according to
its size, sells from twenty to forty centimes each. It is
slightly sweet and a little heavy, and not suitable for
invalids; but after being well beaten, rubbed with
charcoal to take away the mucous, washed in several
waters, the last saturated with lemon-juice, and cooked
with butter and condiments, it is an agreeable dish,

* * Trans. Amer. Ethnol. Society,' vol. i. pp. 360, 361; and vol. iii.
pp. 360, 361

f ' Official Introduction to Bahamas Fisheries,' &c, by Rebus.

200 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

very nourishing, and easy of digestion. The Creole
gardeners use the shells of the Laaibis or Strumitis
gigas, to place round their flower beds, and they are
also used for making lime, and the price per 10U0 is
from forty to fifty francs.*

The manufacture of shell cameos is said to be of
Sicilian origin, and has been carried on at Rome since
1805, and in Paris it was commenced by an Italian
about twenty-five or thirty years ago, and a larger
number of shell cameos are made in Paris than in Italy, f

The German name for the whelk is very appropriate,
viz., Trompetenschncclce, or Kinkhorn. In Anglo-Saxon
whelk is Weolc, but weolc is said to mean that which
gives the purple dye (therefore it would apply better to
the dog-whelk, Buccinum lapillus, or Purpura lapillus,
which yields a purple dye) ; thus, embroidered with
purple is weolc-hasn-hewen ; scarlet dye is iveolc-read.
In 1684 Purpura lapillus, the dog-whelk, was employed
for dyeing linen in Ireland ; and Neumann says that
the purple-fish was also found on the coasts of Ireland,
and that some persons made considerable profit by
marking linen with its juices.

The shell, which is very hard, is broken by a smart
blow, taking care not to crush the body of the fish
within. After picking off the broken pieces, there
appears a white vein or reservoir, lying transversely in
a little furrow near the head. This being carefully
taken out, and characters drawn with it, or its viscid
juice squeezed upon linen or silk, the part immediately
acquires, on being exposed to the sun, a pale yellowish

* ' De l'Utilite de certains Mollusques Marius de la Guadeloupe et de
la Martinique/ par AI. Beau.

f ' Dictionary of Terms in Art,' by F. W. Fairholt, F.S.A.

MUltlCIDJS. WHELK. 201

green, which quickly deepens into an emerald green,
then changes to blue, and at last to a fine purplish-red.
If the cloth be now washed with scalding water and
soap, and laid again in the sun, the colour changes
to a beautiful crimson, which suffers no further altera-
tion from sun, or air, soap, alum, alkaline leys, or any
of the substances used for assaying the permanency of
colours.

The juice of the purple-fish receives no colour itself,
and communicates none to silk or lineu, without ex-
posure to the sun. It seems to be the light, and not
the heat, of the sun, that calls forth the tincture ; for
when the cloth is covered with thin opaque bodies,
which transmit heat without light, no colour is produced,
while transparent ones give no impediment to its pro-
duction. The juice, itself, in close glass vessels becomes
presently purple in the sun.* Lister, in 168G, mentions
the discovery of a shellfish, Purpura Anglicana, on the
shores of the Severn, in which there is a vein containing
a juice giving the delicate and durable tincture of the
rich Tyrian purple. A writer in the ' Annual Register '
for 1 760, says that, being " at a gentleman's house in
the west of Ireland, he took particular notice of the
gown of the lady of the house. It was a muslin flowered
with the most beautiful violet colour .... She told me
it was her own work, and took me to the seaside, where
she gathered some little shells ; . . . beating them open
and extracting the liquor with the point of a clean pen,
she marked some spots directly before me." He adds : —
" 1 suppose a huudred fishes would not produce a drop
as large as a pea." Richard of Cirencester also mentions

* ' Neumann's Chemistry,' p. 510 ; the Memoirs of the French
Academy for 1730. See ' Philosophical Transactions,' .No. 178.

202 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

as a production of Britain, " shells from which is pre-
pared a scarlet dye of the most beautiful hue, which
never fades from the effect of sun or rain."

It is also stated in the ( Athenasum ' of July 20, 1 850,
that the Nicaraguan Indians use a purple dye prepared
from shellfish.

Pliny says that there are two kinds of fish that pro-
duce the purple dye, the Buccinum, and the Purpura,
purple or pelagia.* Murex trunculus is generally
considered to have yielded it, but Murex brandaris
was also used, and most certainly at Tyre, as we shall
presently read.

We all know the story of the discovery of the Por-
phyra shellfish, by the dog of a Tyrian nymph loved
by Hercules ; which having picked up some of these
shells, and crushed them with its teeth, its mouth became
stained with purple dye. It is scarcely probable that
it could crush the strong hard shells of the Buccinum,
or Murex, but it might easily break the beautiful fragile
shell of the Helix ianthina, which we know yields a
purple juice ; for though a fable, the above was intended
to relate a possible event; and we are told by Sir
Gardner Wilkinson, that the ianthina is common on
the coast about Tyre and Beyrout. And though so small,
being only the size of a small snail, three-quarters of
an inch in diameter, the water becomes completely
coloured all around it, whenever it is alarmed, and throws
out its purple liquid, f

Athenasus speaks of many different kinds of purple-
fish, some of them of large size, like those which are
found near Segeum and Lesteum ; and some small, like

* Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. chap. 67.

f See note, Uavvlinson's ' Herodotus,' vol. ii. bk. iii. chap. 20, p. 415.

MURICIDiE. WHELK. 203

those found in the Euripus, and around Caria. Ac-
cording to Pliny, the juice of the Buccinum was con-
sidered inferior by itself, but mixed with that of the
Pelagia it blended well, and gave a bright lustre to the
colour. The proper proportions for dyeing fifty pounds
of wool were 200 pounds of juice of the Buccinum, and
111 pounds of pelagium,* and this mixture produced a
beautiful amethyst colour. The Tyrian hue was given
to wool by soaking it in the juice of the Pelagia, while
the mixture was in a raw state, and afterwards dipping
it in the juice ol the Buccinum. The best quality was
of the colour of blood, of a blackish hue to the sight,
but of a shining appearance when held up to the
light.f The " conchyliated " colour comprehended a
variety of shades, viz., that of the heliotropium, as
well as one of a deeper colour ; that of the mallow in-
clining to a full purple, and that of the late violet ;
this last being the most vivid of all the " conchyliated "
tints. J

The best purple in Asia was that of Tyre, and the
peculiar symbol of that city was the whelk, or purpura,
and it appears on the Tyrian medals. § Strabo remarks
that this city was rendered unpleasant as a place of
residence, owing to the great number of its dyeing-
works.

In the days of Ezekiel, purple was imported by the
Tyrians from the Peloponnesus, but they soon learned
to extract the dye for themselves. A modern traveller,
Mr. Wilde, observed at Tyre numerous round holes

* Pelagia was the shellfish, and pelagium, the juice, or colour,
from it.

f Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. chap. 62 (38).
X Ibid. vol. iv. bk. xxi. chap. 22 (8).
§ « Heraldry of Fish.'

204 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

cut in the solid sandstone rock, in which shells seem
to have been crushed. They were perfectly smooth on
the inside, and many of them shaped like a modern
iron pot, broad and flat at the bottom, and narrowing
towards the top. Many of these were filled with a
breccia of shells, and he supposes that all the shells
were of one kind, probably Murex trunculus*

Dr. Tristram in ' The Land of Israel/ mentions
finding traces at Tyre of its ancient trade and manufac-
tures, and that amongst the rubbish thrown out in the
excavations were numberless fragments of glass, and
whole " kitchen-middens " of shells, crushed and
broken, the owners of which had once supplied the
famed Tyrian purple dye. All these shells were of one
species, and that one of the most plentiful on the coast,
the Murex brandaris. It has frequently been stated
that Murex trunculus is the true original of the Tyrian
dye, and it is very possible that it may have been also
used for that purpose. But Dr. Tristram adds, " While
we noticed only a few broken specimens of M. trun-
culus scattered about, the compact masses of broken
shells, and which, therefore, had most probably been
used in manufacture, and not merely for food,, were
exclusively of the former species."

In Africa, the island of Meninx (now called Gerbee,
in the Gulf of Cabes) was famed for its purple, as
well as parts of Gsetulia that border on the ocean ;
and in Europe, the best came from the coast of
Laconia.

Cornelius Nepos speaks of the Tarentine red ; and

Hardouin remarks that in his time were still to be seen

the remains of the ancient dyeing-houses at Tarentum,

* W. Smith, ' Dictionary of the Bible/ vol. iii. p. 1581, article ■ Tyre.>

MUItlCID^E. — WHELK. 205

and that vast heaps of the shells of the Murex had been
discovered.*

Aufrere, in 1 789, describes a hill called Monte Tes-
taceo, behind the Alcantarine Convent, at Tarento,
consisting chiefly of the shells of Murex brandaris
which were supposed to have produced the purple dye,f
and according to Dr. Bizio, the Tyrian purple was pro-
duced from this Murex brandaris, and the amethystine
purple from Murex Iruncnlus. Romulus employed the
purple dye for the trabea. It was purple and white,
something similar in cut to the toga, and was the royal
robe worn by the early kings. Servius mentions two
other kinds of trabea besides the one already described,
one wholly of purple, which was sacred to the gods, and
another of purple and saffron, which belonged to augurs.
Julius Cassar appears to have been the first of the Ro-
man emperors who wore the toga entirely of purple.

As long as the Empire of the East lasted, this dye
continued to be appropriate to imperial use. Its
manufacture seems to have expired with the capture
of Constantinople by the Turks, for, in 1464, Pope
Paul II. authorized the substitution of scarlet for
purple in the vestments of the church. J

The best purple dye was stated by the ancients to be
exceedingly durable ; and when Alexander took pos-
session of Susa, he found amongst its treasures 5000
talents in weight of purple cloth, from Hermione in
the Peloponnesus, which had been laid up there for 180
years, and yet retained all the freshness and brilliancy

* Pliny, « Nat. Hist.' see note, vol. ii. bk. vs.. ch. 63 (39).
f Aufrere's ■ Travels.'

% Schmidt, ' Forschungen/ p. 209, as quoted in ' Phoenicia/ by John
Kenrick, M.A.

206 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

of its original colour. It was said to owe its durability
and freshness to some use of honey in the process of
dyeing.*

In f Religious Ceremonies/ p. 309, we are told
that the Pope celebrates Mass in Lent, Advent, and all
eves on which fasting is required, in a purple robe.

Other shellfish produce purple dyes ; amongst them
Aplysia hybrida, and I have dyed a piece of linen with
the beautiful purple liquid which it emits, but it faded
quickly.

Dr. Darwin mentions a large Aplysia which is com-
mon at the Cape de Verd Islands, five inches long, and
of a dirty yellowish colour, veined with purple, and
when disturbed, it emits a very fine purplish-red fluid,
which stains the water for a space of a foot round.

The Dolabella Bumphi is stated by Mr. Nicholas
Pike to yield a deep lilac liquid, and from one spe-
cimen which he found on Barkly Island, off the Island
of Mauritius, he procured nearly half an ounce of the
viscous liquid, which retained its colour even when dry.f

Lima squamosa secretes a liquid of a blood-red
colour. J It is found at Malion, Minorca.

Scalaria communis yields a purple liquor destruc-
tible by acids, and Planorbis corneus, a purplish fluid,
but it cannot be made of any use, though Lister tried
several experiments with the vain hope of being able
to fix it.

In Spain, Murex trunculus is eaten, and is called,
Corns, Com blanc, Caracoles, Cornias, Bois, and Bucios;

* Plutarch, Alex., c. 36, as quoted in ' Phoenicia,' by John Ken.
rick, M.A.

f ' Subtropical Rambles,' by Nicholas Pike, p. 277.
I ' Journal cle Conchy liologie,' 18137 ; vol. xv. p. 265.

MURICIDjE. — WHELK. 207

and Purpura lapillus is said by M. Cailliaud to be used
for food in the spring (after the fish have spawned) by
some of the inhabitants of St. Michel- Chef- Chef, in the
department of the Loire Inferieure. In March, 1865, I
saw Purpura lapillus sold at Hastings ready boiled
for eating at Id. per pint; but the name given to
them, was not one to encourage a trial, viz., Man-
suckers; though I was assured they were very good,
and tasted like periwinkles. The Spanish names for
it are Minchas, and Corn de fel.

The Almond Whelk, or Red Whelk, as it is some-
times called — Fusus antiquus — is eaten in Liverpool,
and great quantities are taken on the Cheshire coast.
In Dublin the fishermen use them principally for bait
for the larger kind offish, such as cod and ling, and only
occasionally eat them, boiled or pickled. The beautiful
large white variety is dredged off the Irish coast. My
largest specimen from Dublin measures six and a half
inches in length, and three and a half inches in breadth,
and Dr. Jeffreys saw the shells used as lamps in the
Shetland Isles by the northern fishermen. They are
suspended from a nail in the wall or ceiling of the hut,
by means of a piece of string, which is fastened round
the shell in a triangular form. The inside is filled with
fish-oil, and a wick of cotton or tow is put into the
canal at the extremity of the mouth.* The Chinese use
a large shell, a species of Fusus> for their fog-horns.

In ' Antiquitates Culinariae/ it is said that at the
enthronization feast of William Warham, Archbishop of
Canterbury, in 1504, 8000 whelks were supplied at five
shillings a thousand, and they were served up as an
accompaniment to sturgeon ; and amongst the dishes
* ' British Conchology,' vol. i., Introduction, p. ixviii.

208 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

forming part of the second course, we read of Sturgeon
in foyle with welkes.

In heraldry we find whelks used, and the arras of Sir
John Shelley, of Maresfield, in Sussex, are sable, afess
engrailed between three whelk-shells or. The Shelleys
of Lincolnshire bear, argent a chevron gules, between
three whelks sable ;* and the crest of the Venables, of
Cheshire, is a wyvern gules, issuing from a whelk-shell
argent ; and many other examples might be given.f

A buccinum, or whelk, with a figure rising out of it,
or rather looking out of it, is sculptured on the font in
St. Clement's Church, Sandwich.

It is said that the eider-duck when it has not more
than one or two eggs in its nest, places a shell, Bucci-
num glaciate, beside them. The usual number of eggs
is from five to six. Western Norway Island, off the
coast of Western Spitzbergen, is a well-known place
where the eider-duck breeds in great numbers. J

Dublin Method of Cooking Whelks. — Cleanse them
well, boil them till they can easily be taken from the
shell, and then fry them with plenty of fat or butter,
till they are brown.

Whelk Soup. — Take two onions and cut them into
small dice, fry them in a stew-pan with some butter ;
shake the pan well for a few minutes, add five heads
of celery, two handfuls of spinach, two cabbage-lettuces
cut small, and some parsley. Shake the pan again,
put in two quarts of water, some crusts of bread, a
teaspoonful of pepper, and a blade or two of mace. Let
this boil gently for an hour. Boil the whelks, take

* Burke's ' General Armorie.'

+ Fairbairn's ' Crests of Great Britain.'

X Nordenskjold's 'Arctic Voyages in 1878 9.'

HELICIDJE. SNAIL. 209

tbem out of their shells, and fry them a good brown,
and then add them to the soup, and let the whole boil
a few minutes, then serve.*

Another way of making Whellc Soup. — Wash the
whelks well, boil them and pick them out of the shells.
Put an ounce of butter or dripping', with some finely
chopped parsley, an onion, a little pepper and salt, into
a saucepan, and fry it until it becomes brown, adding a
little flour. Then to this add a pint of water or a pint
and a half of milk, and when it boils, place in the whelks
and a teaspoonful of anchovy. Let it boil again for
half an hour, then serve.

To dress Whelks. — Boil them till quite tender, then
eat them with vinegar and pepper.

At Marseilles I have seen the large Triton nodiferus
sold in the streets ready boiled for eating ; but it did
not look a tempting dish, and appears to be appre-
ciated only by the lower classes.

Fam. HELICID^E.
HELIX— SNAIL.

Helix pomatia, Linnaeus. Vine Snail. — Shell glo-
bular, strong, large, covered with coarse longitudinal
striae, five volutions, convex ; spire short, and the apex
blunt; pale cream- colour, with rufous bands; the
columella arched; and of a pale purplish-pink; the
outer lip dark reddish-brown; mouth almost round.

Helix aspersa, Linnaeus. Garden Snail — Shell

opaque, nearly globular, four to four and a half volutions,

the last much larger, occupying nearly two-thirds of

the shell; mouth nearly ovate; spire short, with a

* 'Old Cookery Book.'

P

210 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

blunt point; the outer lip white, with dark-brown
bands or mottlings, subject to great variety of markings;
epidermis yellowish-green, and thick.

Helix nemqkalis, Linnaeus. Wood Snail.— Shell
imperforate, globular, whorls five, more or less covered
with minute spiral striae; mouth pyriform; inner margin
oflip of a rich dark chocolate-brown; in variety hortensis
mouth has a white lip. Colours various ; yellow, yellow
with brown bands, pink, pink and brown, dark choco-
late, with darker bands of the same colour, and white.

Helix pisana, Linnaeus. The Banded Snail. — Shell
rather depressed, and nearly globular, of a pale yel-
lowish-white, with spiral bands of a dark chocolate-
brown, which are not always joined together, giving the
shell a speckled or streaky appearance ; whorls five
or five and a half; mouth pink and rather large.
Varieties nearly white and also others with the bands
of a chestnut colour, and scarcely to be distinguished.

Helix pomatia is the largest of our land snails, being
about one and three quarters inches in breadth and
length, and is found in Kent, Surrey, Gloucestershire,
and other southern counties ; and a specimen was met
with some time since in a lane near Exmouth, which I
believe to be a new locality for it. Some curious re-
versed specimens are occasionally found in France, and
one variety particularly struck me, which was exhibited
in the Museum at the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris.
It was something the shape of a Buccinnm, the whorls
rounded and swollen, and six in number. A beautiful
white variety is also found, but rarely, in the environs of
Clermont. It is supposed by some to have been origi-
nally introduced into England by Sir Kenelm Digby, as
food or medicine for his wife, who was suffering from

HELICIDJi. — SNAIL. 211

consumption ; others say that the Romans introduced
it ; but Dr. Jeffreys believes it to be indigenous, and
observes (in his ' British Conchology ') that it is not
found in many parts of England and Wales where the
Romans built cities or had important military stations.

Archaeologists often find snail-shells in great abun-
dance, however, in excavating on the sites of Roman
stations, and at Lymne, in Kent (Portus Lemanis),
Mr. Wright has seen them dug up in masses almost as
large as ordinary buckets, and completely embedded
together ; * and I have seen in the Museum at Shrews-
bury, the shells of Helix aspersa, with those of Fitsus
antiquusj Buccinum undatum, Cardium echinatum, and
of the oyster, which had all been found at Wroxeter.
In France, also, empty shells of the Vine snail, Helix po-
matia have been met with amongst the ruins of Roman
villas, in the neighbourhood of Auch, Agen, and in
Provence ; and in the Danish " kjokkenmoddings,"
Helix nemoralis has been found in small quantities.

As a medicine, snails were recommended for other
diseases besides consumption, and Helix aspersa,, the
common garden snail, was generally used.

In a quaint old book, entitled 'A Rich Storehouse or
Treasurie for the Diseased, wherein are many approved
medicines for divers and sundrie diseases which have
longe been hidden, and not come to light before this
time ; first set forth for the benefit of the poorer sorts of
people that are not of abilitie to goe to the Physicians,'
by Master Ralph Blower, we find : — ,f Snales which bee
in shells, beat together with bay salt and mallowes,
and laid to the bottomes of your feet, and to the wristes
of your hands, before the fit commeth, appeaseth the
* ' The Celt, the Roman, aud the Smoii.'

v 2

212 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

ague." Again : — "Take twenty garden snails and beat
them (shelles aud all) in a mortar, until you perceive
them to be come to asalue ; then spread a little thereof
upon a lumen c loath, and lay it to the place grieued, and
when one plaister is dry, then take that of, and put on
another, and it will both heale the sore place and draw
it." For corns, he recommends " blacke sope and
similes, of each a like quantitie, stampe them togither,
aud make plaister thereof, and spread it upon a piece
of fine linnen cloth, or else upon a piece of white leather,
and lay it upon the corne, and it will take it cleane
away within seven dayes space/'

"Another soueraigne Medicine for a Web in the eye. —
Take a good quantitie ot snailes with their shells upon
them, and wash them very well, and then distill them
in a common stillatorie ; then take of the galles of
Hares, Red currall, and Sugar-candie, aud mingle them
together with the said water, and then distill them
againe ; then take the same water, and put it into a
glasse or viall, and when you will use it, take a drop
thereof, and put it into your eyes both morning and
evening, and it will help you."

Dr. William Salmon's reiipefor a Web in the eye. — ■
"To remove this offence of sight, take the shell-
snails and burn them to powder, beat it fine, and sift
it, add to it the powder of cuttleboue ; put these into
alum-water where honey is dissolved, and shake them
about : wheu the water is thick with the powder, drop
some of it into the eye with a feather, keeping the lids
closed a while and turn your eye to and fro, that it may
fret off the film or skin that hinders the sight, and in
oftt n so doing it will wear it away."

JJr. Fuller, in his ' Fnai niaeojoeia,' recommends

HELICID.1. SNAIL. 213

snails in scorbutic affections, and gives the following
recipe for a consumption : —

" Snail-water Pectoral. — Take snails beaten to a mash,
with their shells, three pounds ; crum of white bread,
newly baked, twelve ounces ; nutmeg, six drams ;
ground-ivy, six handfuls; whey, three quarts; distill
it in a cold still, without burning. If I would have this
water not so absolutely cold, I add brandy half a pint
or a pint. This water humects, dilutes, supplies,
tempers, nourishes, comforts, and therefore is highly
conducive in hectic consumptive emaciations. "

In Dr. John Quincy's ' Pharmacopoeia Officinalis, or
a complete English Dispensatory,' are the following : —

" Decoctwm Limacum, or Decoction of Snails. — Take
garden snails, cleansed from their shells, number twelve;
red cows' milk, new, two pounds; boil to a pound; and
add rose-water, an ounce ; sugar-candy, half-an-ounce.

" It will be very difficult to boil this so long as to
waste one-half, because it will be apt both to run over
and burn to the bottom, and therefore must be stirred
all the while ; this quantity is ordered to be drank
every morning, and is a noble restorative in consump-
tions, especially for young people.'"'

" Decoctum Antiphthisicum, a Decoction against Con-
sumptions. — Take ox-eye daisy flowers, dried, a handful;
snails, washed clean, numb, three; candied eryngo-root,
half an ounce; pearl-barley, two ounces ; boil in spring-
water from apoundtohalfapound,andthenstrainforuse.

"This brings a supply of such soft and inoffensive
nourishment, as gives no trouble to a weak constitution,
and therefore is of service in consumptions, hectic
fevers, etc., etc. The patient must drink four ounces of
this warm, with an equal quantity of milk, twice a day."

214 EDIBLE BRITISH MoLT/USCA.

In Ireland the snail, or " shellimidy," was recom-
mended for many diseases, and "a water distilled from
shell-snails in canary wine, in the month of May, is a
great restorative in consumptions ; also strengthens
the liver ; outwardly applied it is a cosmetic ; it beau-
tifies the face, and the volatile oil and spirit extracted
from snails resist poison, open all manner of obstruc-
tions, cure the pleurisy, asthma, most disorders of the
lung's, and, alter a wonderful manner, the consumption.
Dose of the volatile salt, from grnius six to twelve ; of
the spirit, from thirty to forty drops."*

The following recipes are from an old manuscript
book ; but though snails might be tolerated, I doubt
any person having sufficient courage to try them with
the addition of earthworms !

" For a Consumption. — Take twelve snails, better
house snails, and twelve earthworms, clean washed ;
boil them in a pint of new milk to half a pint, then
pour it on one ounce of eryngo-root. Take some every
night and morning. "

" For a Consumption. — Twenty-four garden snails,
two sheep's trotters, half an ounce of comfrey-root,
one quart of spring-water, a quart of milk ; boil all
together till reduced to half the quantity : take a cup of
this every night and morning. "

An excellent Remedy for a Consumption. — Take
twenty snails, and a handful of broad daisies, and put
in a quart of water, and gently boil it to a pint, take a
spoonful every morning in some milk.f

' Water against a Consumption — Take a pound of

* 'Zoologia Medicinalis Hibernica,' by Jobn Keogh.
t ' The Housekeeper's Pocket-book,' by Mrs. Surah Harrison of
Devonshire (^1751).

HELICIDJ3. — SNAIL. 215

currants, and of hart's tongue, liverwort, and speedwell,
of each a large handful ; then take a peck of snails, lay
them all night in hyssop, the next morning rub and
bruise them, and distill all in a gallon of new milk ;
sweeten it with sugar-candy, and drink of this water
two or three times a day, a quarter of a pint at a time;
it has done good/''*

An admirable and most famous snail water. — Take a
peck of garden snails, wash them well in small beer,
and put them in a hot oven till they have done making
a noise, then take them out, and wipe them well from
the green froth that is upon them, and bruise them,
shells and all, in a stone mortar; then take a quart of
earthworms, scour them with salt, and slit them, and
wash them well with w r ater till clean, and in a stone mor-
tar beat them to pieces ; then lay in the bottom of your
distilled pot, angelica two handfuls, and two handfuls
of celandine upon them, to which add two quarts of
rosemary flowers, bearsfoot, agrimony, red dock roots,
bark of barberries, betony, wood sorrel, of each two
handfuls, rue, one handful ; then lay the snails and
worms on the top of the herbs and flowers ; then pour
on three gallons of the strongest ale, and let it stand
all night. In the morning put in three ounces of
cloves beaten, six pennyworth of beaten saffron, and
on the top of them six ounces of shaved hart's-
hoin ; then set on the limbeck, and close it with paste,
and so receive the water by pints, which will be nine
in all ; the first is the strongest, whereof take in the
morning two spoonfuls in four spoonfuls of small beer,
and the like in the afternoon; you must keep a good
diet, and use moderate exercise to warm the blood.

* ' The Complete Cook,' by James Jeuks.

216 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSOA.

This water is good against all obstructions whatso-
ever. It cureth a consumption and dropsie. It may-
be distilled with milk for weak people and children,
with hart's-tongue and elecampane.*

" An excellent Snail-water. — Take of comfrey and
succory-roots, of each four ounces, liquorice, three
ounces, the leaves of hart's-tongue, plantain, ground-
ivy, red-nettle, yarrow, brooklime, watercresses, dande-
lion, and agrimony, of each two large handfuls ; gather
these herbs in dry weather, and do not wash them, but
wipe them clean with a cloth. Then take five hundred
snails, cleansed from their shells, but not scoured, and
of wmites of eggs beaten up to a water, a pint, four
nutmegs grossly beaten, the yellow rind of one lemon
and one orange. Bruise all the roots and herbs and
put them together, with the other ingredients, in a
gallon of new milk, and a pint of Canary ; let them
stand close covered, forty-eight hours, and then distill
them in a common still, with a gentle fire. This quan-
tity will fill a still twice. It will keep good a year, and
is best when made spring or fall ; but it is best when
new. You must not cork up the bottles for three months,
but cover them with paper. It is immediately fit for
use ; take a quarter of a pint of this water, and put to
it as much milk warm from the cow, and drink it in the
morning, and at four o'clock in the afternoon, and fast
two hours after. To take powder of crab's eyes with
it, as much as will lie on a sixpence, mightily assists to
sweeten the blood. When you drink this water, be
very regular in your diet, and eat nothing salt nor
sour."t

" Mock Asses Milk. — One pound of snails layed in

* ' The Complete Cook/ f ' A Queen's Delight/ &c., 1658.

HELICID.E. SNAIL. 217

salt and water for two days, and then cleaned and
washed, a quarter of a pound of barley, three penny-
worth of eryn go-root ; boil all the above together, till
they become a jelly, and let them be strained off.
Half a pint night and morning for a grown person,
and quarter of a pint for a child. It must be taken
warm, and a little milk and sugar added after it is
warmed. It is an excellent remedy for consumption
and weakness."

" To make Snail Broth. — Take five snailhorn snails,
clean them well with salt and water. Bruise them in
a marble mortar, put them into a basin of weak
mutton, or veal, or chicken broth; when boiled about
five minutes, strain them off into your basin. When
repeated, take ten, fifteen, or any number of snails to
twenty, as the person's stomach can bear with."*

A modern authority, Francatelli, gives the following
recipe in his ' Cook's Guide ' : —

" Mucilaginous Broth. — Put a cut-up chicken, a
pound of veal cutlet, and a calf's foot into a stew-pan,
with three pints of water, boil and skim ; then add a
dozen crayfish and a pint of garden snails, both bruised
and raw, in a mortar ; add also a handful of balm,
burrage, and chervil, three ounces of prepared Iceland
moss, and a small quantity of salt. The broth must
boil very gently by the side of the fire for about two
hours, without much reduction, and when done is to
be strained into a basin for use."

Note. — This is a powerful demulcent, and is much in
use in France, in cases of phthisis, catarrh, bronchitis,
etc., etc.

Oil of Black Snails — Spanish Cure for Consumption.

* Old MS. B.

21 S EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

— Make a flannel bag of a triangular shape (like a jelly
bag), fit the corner into a wide-mouthed bottle, fill it
with black snails, in the hottest time of the year ; tie
up the mouth, and suspend the bottle and bag on a
wall, the hottest you can find. The proper place is the
sunny angle of a wall, where the south and west sun fall
longest. The snails will give out a large quantity of
frothy liquid, which will drain into the bottle ; cork it
close for use, and give a teaspoonful at a time, three
or four times a day, in milk or any other liquid.

The common garden snail, Helix aspersa, also gives
out a frothy liquid, which might be collected in the
same manner, and used with benefit by consump-
tive patients. The friend who kindly gave me the
above recipe tells me that these black snails resemble
Helix aspersa, but the colour is much darker, and at a
distance looks almost black. In an old English
medical book, dated 1756, syrup of snails is recom-
mended for coughs, weaknesses, etc., and is made
by hanging snails up in a bag, with some sugar, by
which means the syrup drops into a vessel placed to
receive it. In Sussex the old women thread the
snails through the shell and the animal, and hang
them up till they exude the frothy liquid, which they
collect and give as a remedy in coughs and colds.

Fur a Swelling on the Joints. — Take three handful s
of shell snails (off a rabbit-warren), pound them very
fine, and mix them with some new milk (not too thin) ;
put them between two pieces of fine linen cloth, and
apply them on the part. This is to be applied once a
day, or as often as it gets dry.

Popular Spanish Cure for the Headache. — Make a
poultice of bruised snails. They must be broken up

HELIC1D.E. SNAIL. 219

with their shells and put into a piece of lmen folded
four times so as to make it thick, dip it in brandy, and
squeeze it tolerably dry; then apply it to the forehead.

Pliny also recommends a plaster of slugs, cut up and
pounded, and applied to the forehead.

M. Figuier remembers, when studying botany in the
garden of the School of Medicine, as a youth, at Mont-
pellier, seeing the celebrated tenor singer, M. Laborde,
every morning partake of live snails, as he was suffer-
ing from a w 7 eak chest. M. Figuier assisted in finding
the snails in the holes in the garden wall, and under
leaves, and M. Laborde, crushed the mollusks with a
stone, picking off the pieces of broken shells, then,
rolling the fish in powdered sugar, swallowed them.
The remedy was evidently efficacious, as, twenty years
later, M. Laborde still held his position as tenor, and
sang at the theatre at Brussels, and also at the opera
in Paris *

In the ' Meddygon Myddvai/ published by the Welsh
MISS. Society, the following recipes are found : —

" For an Impostume (Whitlow). — Take a snail out of
its shell, and bruising it small, pound it into a plaster
and apply it to the finger ; it will ripen and break it,
and it should then be dressed like any other wound.
For a patient who is burnt, it recommends a plaster of
mallows, snail-shells, pennywort, and linseed pounded,
and applied until the part is healed without even un-
covering it; and again, it says that an eye ointment
can be made of a black snail in the month of Ma} 7 ,
roasted in the embers, preserving the oil till required,
and anointing your eye therewith with a feather/'

In olden times it was supposed that the small grits

* ' La Vie et les Moeurs des Animaux,' p. 386.

220 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

of sand found in the horns of snails, introduced into
hollow teeth, removed the pain instantaneously ; and
that the ashes of empty snail-shells mixed with myrrh
were good for the gums (Pliny's ' Nat. Hist/ vol. v.
p. 431.)

Pliny also recommends " snails beaten up raw and
taken in three cyathi of warm water for a cough/' and
a snail diet for internal pains, the snails to be cooked
as follows : — " They must first be left to simmer in
water for some time without touching the contents of
the shell ; after which, without any other addition,
they must be grilled upon hot coals, and eaten with
wine and garum (a kind of fish sauce)/' * Again,
" that a kind of small elongated snail, dried upon tiles
in the sun, and reduced to powder, then mixed with
bean-meal in equal proportions, forms a cosmetic for
whitening and softening the skin/''

In Austria, the teeth of snails are worn as amulets,
and are considered an invaluable safeguard against
convulsions, if worn round the neck of a baby ; and
Miss Eden says, "that there was only one person in
Salzburg, who could extract the teeth of snails/'t

Mrs. Bury Palliser states, that pounded snails worn
round the neck are considered a cure for fevers in
Brittany; and that near Gruingamp is a small chapel
dedicated to St. Leonard, the patron saint of prisoners,
which was built by Charles of Blois on his return from
his captivity in England, and that, in the month of
May, those who are attacked with fever repair to
St. Leonard, to seek upon the walls of the chapel, or
on the calvary attached to it, snails as cures for their

* Pliny, « Nat. Hist.' vol. v. chap. xv. bk. xxx. p. 437.
+ ' My Holiday in Austria,' p. 30.

HELTCIDJ5. SNAIL. 221

malady. They must gather them themselves, pound
them and put them into little bags, which are worn
round the neck. As soon as the fever leaves them,
they bury their bags at the foot of the walls of the
chapel, and if they fail to perform this ceremony, the
fever returns. Mrs. Palliser adds, " we found quantities
of these bags made of course linen, lying half-buried
under the walls of the chapel." *

I have been told that a large trade in snails is
carried on for Covent Garden market in the Lincoln-
shire Fens, and that they are sold at ISd. per quart,
and upon further inquiry I find that snails are still
much used for consumptive patients and weakly
children; also as salves for corns put between ivy
leaves ; and as food for birds. In the manufacture of
cream they are also much employed, bruised in milk
and boiled, and a retired milkman pronounced, it the
most successful imitation known.

It appears that not only are the Helicldee nourishing
to the human species, but that they have a beneficial
effect upon sheep, giving a richness to the flavour of
the mutton. Dr Jeffreys, in his ' British Concholooy/
quotes the following passage from Borlase's ( Natural
History of Cornwall:' — "The sweetest mutton is
reckoned to be that of the smallest sheep, which
usually feed on the commons where the sands are
scarcely covered with the green-sod, and the grass
exceedingly short; such are the towens or sand-hillocks
in Pirau-saud, Gwythian, Philne, and Senan Green,
near the Land's End, and elsewhere in like situations.
From these sands come forth snails of the turbinated
;inds, but of different species, and all si'zps, from the
* ' Brittauy and its Bye'ways.'

222 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

adult to the smallest just from the egg ; these spread
themselves over the plains early in the morning, and
whilst they are in quest of their own food among the
dews, yield a most fattening nourishment to sheep. "

Birds also are great eaters of snails. Lister mentions
the partiality of thrushes for Helix nemoralis ; and
owing to the scarcity of this species in South Derby-
shire, I have twice brought a large basketful of live
specimens from Staffordshire, and turned them out,
hoping they would thrive and increase; but I have
not only found the dead and broken shells, but con-
stantly disturbed the feathered depredators themselves
at their repast. Helix arbiistorum I have also tried,
but with the same success ; they fared no better than
the other kind.

There is a true saying " that there is nothing on
earth so small that it may not produce great things."*
Thus, the sacred geese at Rome by their cackling
awoke Marcus Manlius, and thereby saved the Capitol
from the Gauls, who were attempting by night to
surprise the garrison; and even such insignificant
creatures as snails were the cause of the following
disaster to a Numidian king : — A castle on a lofty and
steep rock, into which Jugurtha had carried all his
treasures, had long been besieged in vain by Marius,
when a Ligurian in the Roman army, climbing up the
rocks in quest of snails, was led to continue his search
for them, till he had nearly reached the summit, and
thus found that the ascent was practicable; and on
reporting this fact to Marius, having been ordered to
lead a chosen band up the same part of the rocks, he
and his comrades so alarmed the garrison by their
* ' Proverbial Philosophy.'

HEL1CID.E. — SNAIL. 223

unexpected appearance that they gave up the castle to
the besiegers.

The Romans were very partial to snails as an article
of food, and fed them till they grew to a large size.
Several sorts are mentioned by Pliny, and they were
all kept separate; amongst others, white ones that
were found in the neighbourhood of Rieti. He
describes the Illyrian snails as the largest (probably
Helix Incorum, or Helix cincta), the African as the most 4
prolific; others from Soletum, in the Neapolitan terri-,
tory, as the noblest and best. He also speaks of some
as attaining to so enormous a size that their shells
would contain eighty pieces of money of the common
currency,* that is to say, eighty quadrantes, the
quadrans beiug a small copper coin three-quarters of
an inch in diameter, about the size of a new sixpence,
and one-sixteenth of an inch thick. This statement of
Pliny's is really not so improbable as may appear at
first sight, for on trying how many sixpeDces a usual-
sized specimen of our largest snail, Helix pomatia,
would hold, I find that about forty could easily be put
into it ; and very fine specimens are to be found in the
neighbourhood of the Mont Grenier, in Savoy, which
would certainly hold more than forty. In the museum
of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, there are two
specimens of this Helix from Moldavia, nearly twice
the size of the usual ones, measuring about two and a
quarter inches in breadth, and which would easily hold
eighty sixpences.

Fulvius Hirpinus studied the art of fattening them-
with so much success, that some of his snails would'

* Kirby's ' History of Animals,' &c, ' Bridgewater Treatise/ vol. i.
p. 281.

224 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

contain about ten quarts. Pliny in his letter to Sextus
Erucius Clarus, says (complainiug of his not fulfilling
his engagement to sup with him) : — "I had prepared,
you must know, a lettuce apiece, three snails, two
*ggs, and a barley-cake, with some sweet wine and
<;uow."*

In Sir Gardner Wilkinson's ' Dalmatia and Monte-
iegro/ he tells us that the Illyrian snails mentioned by
• 3 liuy are very numerous in Veglia or Veggia, the
Jyractica of Stra.bo.

Both Helix pomatia and Helix as'p&rsa are eaten

abroad to this day, and formerly in England, according

to Dr. Gray, the glassmen at Newcastle indulged

themselves in a snail- feast once a year, and collected

[hem from the fields and hedgerows on the previous

Sunday. Addison, in his ' Travels,' mentions having

j<een a snail garden, or " escargotiere," at the Capucins,

in Friburg. It was a square place boarded in, filled

with a vast quantity of large snails. The floor was

strewn about half a foot deep with several kinds of

plants, for the snails to nestle amongst during the

winter. When Lent arrived, their magazines were

opened, and a ragout made of snails. In Barrois, an

(i escargotiere " consists of a cask with the bead

staved in, covered with a net ; or a square hole with

the sides lined with wood, and fastened over at the top

with an iron trellis, or with a simple hurdle made of

light osier-sticks. The snails are placed in as they

find them, until there are sufficient for a repast, or for

ale. They are also kept in these places till they are

ttened, or till they close their shells with their

■ liphragm, which enables them to be more easily

* Pliin's ' Letters,' vol. i. p. 30.

HELICIDiE. — SNAIL. 225

transported. In Lorraine, a corner of the garden is
often given up to the snails, surrounded with a fine
trellis-work to prevent their escaping, and all kinds of
vegetables are placed inside which are most appreciated
by them. During the winter, the " escargots " (their
shells being closed with their epiphragm) are kept in
pots, jars, or baskets, in a dry cold place. The vine-
growers in the neighbourhood of Dijon keep them in a
dry cellar, or dig a trench in the vine-slopes, placing
at the bottom some leaves, then their snails, covering
them with more leaves and a few spadefuls of earth.

In Silesia, the snails are fed with marjoram, wild
thyme, and aromatic plants, to give them a flavour.

Ulm, in Wurtemberg, is celebrated for its " escar-
gotieres," and, according to Marteni, more than ten
millions of Helix pomatia are sent away to different
gardens and " escargotieres " to fatten, and when
ready for table are sent to various convents in Austria
for consumption during Lent.*

Helicidce are considered rather poor food, and there-
fore suitable as Lenten fare; and this peculiaritv has
given rise to a singular custom near Bordeaux, men-
tioned by M. Fischer, who tells us that every year
crowds of people direct their steps towards the town-
ship of Canderan, to end the Carnival with gaiety, and
to have a foretaste of Lent by feasting on snails. The
consumption is considerable, and a dish of twenty-five
snails costs one franc fifty centimes.

A friend told me he had often seen the large vine-

* Escargotieres, or snail gardens have been in use for a length of
time in various parts of Europe. Dr. Ebrard in his pamphlet ' Des
Escargots,' mentions those of Brunswick and Copenhagen, which latter
furnished snails for the tables of the noble Danes, in the eighteenth
century.

226 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

snail on the dinner table at Vienna; they were served
up plain, boiled in their shells, or stuffed with force-
meat. At Naples, snails are generally kept in bran
for a week or two, or for two or three days, before
they are considered good for the table. They live on
the bran, which is said to fatten them.

When first the snails are gathered from the hedges,
&c, it is a necessary precaution to starve them for a
few days, and not to eat them at once, as they feed on
poisonous plants, such as the deadly nightshade, poppy,
datura, &c. ; cases of poisoning by snails having oc-
curred where they had been gathered near, or had fed
upon these noxious plants.

It is a mistake to suppose that the only snails used
as food are the Helix pomatia and Helix aspersa.*
These are naturally preferred on account of their larger
size, which makes them less troublesome to eat ; but
a variety of small kinds of snails, nineteen species in
all, including those above mentioned, are also em-
ployed in cookery on the Continent, and there is no
reason why they should not be as good as the others,
nor is there any reason why we should not use snails,
and many other molluscous animals, which we now
throw aside, but which are doubtless quite as palatable
and as wholesome as other kinds which our prejudices
permit us to indulge in.

M. A. Docteur Ebrard, in his f Des Escargots, au
point de vue de Y Alimentation, de la Viticulture, et de
l'Honiculture,' gives an interesting account of the use

* Helix aspersa has a variety of names in France, and in the north
it is called Colimaqon, Jardiniere, and Aspergille ; at Montpellier,
Caraguolo; in Bordelais, Caguuille, Li maou, and Limat ; in Provence,
Escargit, and Eseourgol ; at Avignon, Caragoou and Contar; Banarut
at Aries ; and Bajaina at tirasai. — Dr. Ebrard.

HELICIDiE. — SNAIL. 227'

of snails both for food and medicine,, and he tells us
that during a sojourn of some weeks at Hyeres, in the
month of April, he was struck by seeing suspended at
the side of the door of each cottage, a rush basket of
a peculiar form. He was curious to find out the contents,
and on looking into one he found it full of snails. At
the sight of these creatures he made a slight movement
of disdain, which was perceived by the master of the
house, who said, " These snails disgust you, but we poor
people eat no other meat all the year, except at Easter."

Dr. Ebrard adds that, during the famine of 1816 and
1817, snails were most valuable articles of food to the in-
habitants of Central France ; again, that from the coasts
of Saintonge and Aunis, snails have been for a long time
exported in casks to Senegal and the Antilles, amongst
them Helix aspersa ; but in 1825 this trade had
greatly declined. M. Valmont Bomard saw the pea-
sants, in the neighbourhood of La Rochelle, gather-
ing an immense quantity of small snails to send to
America, in casks filled with branches of trees, crossed
again and again, so that the snails might be able to
attach themselves firmly, and not be much shaken
during the transport.

Helix aperta, which is not known in England, but is
figured in Messrs. Forbes and Hanley's ' British Con-
chology/ from a dead specimen having been found in
Guernsey, in 1839, is highly esteemed amongst real
connoisseurs of snails, and is found in Provence (where
it is called by the Provencaux, Tapada, Tapa, or Tapet),
in some parts of Italy, and in the islands of the Medi-
terranean.

M. Moqum-Tandon tells us that vessels regularly
visited the coasts of Liguria, in search of considerable

q 2

228 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

quantities of Helix aperta, for food for the higher
classes at Rome, where it is known by the name of
Monacello. The shell is of a yellowish-olive colour and
nearly translucent, thin, and of an ovate-globular form.
It has a large mouth, with the peristome white, and
the whorls four in number. In the heat of summer,
and during the winter, this Helix, like Helix pomatia,
buries itself in holes in the ground, shutting up the
aperture of its shell with a calcareous epiphragm.

Two of the specimens I have in my collection, which
came from Italy, still have this epiphragm very per-
fectly preserved, and it is glossy, and slightly convex.
Theophrastus, in his c Treatise upon Animals which live
in holes/ states that snails have the habit of burying
themselves. He says, " Snails live in holes during the
winter, and still more in summer, on which account
they are seen in the greatest numbers during the
autumn rains. But their holes in the summer are
made in the ground, and in the trees.*

Helix nemoralis is also eaten, and at Toulouse sells
for five or ten centimes a dish ; but by some, snails
with striped shells are not considered good, as they
have a bad taste and smell. M. Moquin-Tandon pur-
chased, in 1847, in the market at Toulouse, a basket
containing four hundred specimens of Helix aspersa,
for sixty centimes; and. another, with 1503 specimens
of Helix nemoralis, for seventy- five centimes — making
fifteen centimes the hundred for the former, and a little
less than five centimes for the latter. Helix nemoralis,
and Helix hortensis, are known by various names in
France ; for instance, " at Bordeaux they are called
Demoiselles ; Mogne at Libournes, Limaio at Agen,

# AthenauuSj ' Deipn ' vol. i. p. 104.

HELICnXdE. SNAIL. 229

Moli-morno at Limoges, Limaia at Montpellier, Livree
in the north of France, and Caracolo in the Pyrenees."*

Helix piscina, which is a very local species with us,
and only found at Tenby (where I have seen it in
profusion), at Manorbeer, in Cornwall, Jersey, and
Ireland, is greatly prized as an article of food abroad,
and is larger than it is with us, indeed, almost as
large as Helix nemoralis.

At Marseilles the average sale of Helix pisana and
Helix rhodostoma, is about 20,000 kilogrammes, at three
francs the fifty kilogrammes, which makes the sum of
1200 francs. By the sale of our common garden snail
(Helix asperm) the same price is realized, and that of
Helix vermieulata amounts to 4800 francs. It is also
stated that in the market at Dijon is sold, annually,
about 6000 francs worth of the vine snail Helix
pomatia (the escargot par excellence, and called also
Luma, Gros luma 9 and le Mourle de vigjie) at one franc
fifty centimes per hundred .f In Italy the vine snail is
known in some places by the name of Bovolo. In
Corsica the same species are eaten, as those above men-
tioned, and it is said that, in the Island of Re the sale
of these Helicidte amounts annually to 25,000 francs,
but probably this sum is exaggerated.

In Burgundy, Champagne, and Franche-Comte, a
great quantity of snails of all kinds are consumed, and
also sent to Paris ; and Professor Simmonds mentions
that (in 1859) there were fifty restaurants, and more
than 1200 private tables in that city, where snails
were considered a delicacy by from 8000 to 10,000
consumers ; that the monthly consumption of this
mollusk was estimated at half a million ; again, that
the market value of the vineyard snail (vine snail, Hdis
* Dr. Ebrard, * D<es Escargots/ f Idem*

.230 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

poynatia) was from 2s. to 3s. per hundred, while those
from the hedges, woods, and forests, brought only
Is. 6d. to 2s. He further adds, that in the vicinity of
Dijon the proprietor of one snailery is said to clear
near]y £300 a year by his snails ; and also that there are
exported from Crete annually about 20,000 okes (each
nearly 31bs.) of snails, valued at 15,000 Turkish piastres.
M. Renou (as quoted by M. Cailliaud of Nantes), in
a curious account, read in 1864 before the Academical
Society at Nantes, on the importance that the ancients
attached to snails, observed, that during 1862 and
1863, the escargots brought to the March e de la
Bourse, at Nantes, on Sundays and fete days, amounted
in number to 996,000, producing the sum of 2490
francs.* M. Roux, superintendent of the Clos de
Vougeot, and neighbouring vineyards, gave, in the
' Union Bourguignonne/ some details of the operation
of clearing the vines of snails. The Clos de Vougeot
vineyard yielded fifty-five double-decalitres (each thirty-
five pints); Romanee-Conti, six; Chambertin, six; Per-
riere and Plante-Chaude, three; in all, seventy. It was
calculated that these snails would have eaten up
buds, the produce of which, M. Roux estimated at from
fifteen to twenty pipes of wine, without reckoning the
injury to next year's growth. The cost of clearing
these snails in the fifty -five hectares of the vineyard in
question amounted to 120 francs, a mere trifle compared
to what was saved. It is further stated that these mol-
lusks were sold at a remunerative price, as, when sold
in Dijon, Lyons, and especially in Paris, they repre-
sented a value of several thousand francs.f

* ' Catalogue des Iladiaires, des Annelides, des Cirrhipedes,' &c,
par Frederic Cailliaud, de Nantes, p. 222.
t ' Morning Post,' May 8th, 1868.

HELICIDyE. SNAIL. 231

We read that formerly, in Paris, snails were only to
be found in the herbalists' shops, and at the chemists' ;
but now there are special places for them in the fish
markets, by the side of the crayfish and other fresh-
water fishes ; and in nearly all the restaurants you may
see dishes of Helix pomatia displayed in the windows.
They are ready cooked, and only require warming for
a few minutes on the gridiron. It is from Troyes, at
the price of five francs the hundred, that the vine snail
is sent to Paris, boiled in their shells, and seasoned
with fresh butter mixed with parsley, and a very little
garlic. When you wish to partake of them, you place
them before the fire till the butter melts, and then they
are fit to eat. I purchased some, and succeeded in
eating two, but with difficulty, as the way they were
dressed did not disguise the slimy, soapy taste, and
the want of salt and pepper, etc., made them most un-
palatable. I felt that I could sympathize with Dr. Black
and Dr Hutton, who also endeavoured to eat a dish, of
stewed snails ; but, after vainly attempting* to swallow
in very small quantities the mess which each internally
loathed, " Dr. Black at length ' showed the white
feather ;' but in a very delicate manner, as if to sound
the opinion of his messmate, ' Doctor/ he said, in his
precise and quiet manner, ' Doctor, do you not think
that they taste a little — a very little — green V ' Green !
green, indeed ! Take them awa' ! take them awa' ! '
vociferated Dr. Hutton, starting from the table and
giving full vent to his feelings of abhorrence/' *

In Paris, snails are not considered in season till the
first frost, about the end of October, or beginning of

* ' Curiosities of Food/ p. 348.

232 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

November, when they are closed with their white
epiphragm. The Parisians eat about fifteen or twenty
for breakfast, and they are also said to give a better
flavour to wine.

In Spain, also, all snails are eaten, unless they are
too small to cook ; and they are called Caracola, and
the men who gather and sell them are called Caraco-
leros. However, they apply the term Caracola, to all
snail-like shells, only distinguishing them thus, Cara-
cola del mar, Caracola del rio % Caracola del huerta, i.e.
salt, freshwater, or garden caracoles.

Rosstrassler mentions having seen fourteen different
species of Helicida? brought to the markets in Murcia
and Valencia, and sold to be eaten. He adds that
snails are not only food for the poor, for that many
kinds are too costly. One species, called Serranos, is
sold for a penny each of our English money ; but they
are not half that price bought by the dozen. They cook
them by stewing them, shells and all, in a richly-spiced
sauce, and then put the shell to the mouth, and draw
out the animal by sipping or sucking it.

Rossmassler states, for the benefit of those who mav
travel in Spain for scientific purposes, that to collect
plants it is useless to visit the north of Spain before
the middle of April, and the south before the end of
March. For insects and shells, the end of the summer,
and, above all, the autumn is the best time of the
year.

The snail hunters, who daily supply the markets
with large baskets of snails, often have to traverse
great tracts of hilly country, and are obliged to go out
very early in the morning, before sunrise, in search of
these creatures, as they are then to be found in more

HELICIL\3E.— SNAIL. 233

abundance. Much, amusement was afforded to the
Spaniards by Rossmassler throwing away the delicate
animal, and only retaining its shell, which to them was
worthless, but most valuable to him as a concholo^ist.
Upon one occasion, on arriving at a posada, he found the
hotel people sitting down to their midday meal, before
a great dish of snails. He says : — " One look satisfied
me that they were of a rare kind, for which I had
sought in vain, and I immediately seized upon some
of the empty shells, which caused a universal laugh.
I did not care at all for this, but I had actually to pay
a real (about 2s. 4>d.) for the empty shells, which, when
living, I could have got for nothing." This was
thoroughly Spanish.

Dr. W. Gottlob Rosenhauer, in his 'Die Thiere
Andalusiens/ says that Helix lactea, which is very
abundant, and readily found close to stones, amongst
grass, near Malaga, and San Fernando, is brought in
great numbers to the markets in Andalusia, and that
the empty shells may be seen there all about the streets.
Both Helix asjjersa and Helix lactea are used abundantly
for food, but the latter tastes better, and is more deli-
cate. They are generally cooked in rice, with butter
or some other greasy substance, aud held in a napkin
whilst the animal is picked out with a pin ; or some-
times the mouth (or head) is first cut off, and the
animal is then drawn out by suction, a proceeding
not very elegant, at least according to our English ideas.
Helix lactea may also be classed among the edible
snails of France, and is found in the Pyrenees, and
also in Corsica.

Dr. Ebrard was informed by Dr. Roi, the Inspector
of Colonization in Africa, that in the market at Algiers

234 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

large heaps of snails are to be seen of the same species
as those in Central France, and are sold by the bushel,
and by the hundred, as an article of food ; and a small
species, about the size of a pea, is collected in Algeria
in great numbers, and given to the ducks.

At Oran (which is inhabited by a large number of
Spaniards), in the European portion of the town, the
Hon . Lewis Wingfield mentions coming upon a colony
of Spaniards, principally charcoal-burners, living in
dwellings hollowed out of the earth on the side of a
bank sloping to the sea. The better classes of these
extraordinary habitations were surrounded by a rough
bamboo paling completely covered with large land
snails, which are eaten by the poor people. There
were also heaps of them lying in the sun to dry, and
great stacks of them, neatly stored away in grass
hampers, ready for transmission into the interior.*

Sir Gardner Wilkinson has seen basketsful of snails
carried about for sale in the streets in Cairo ; and in
' Physical Geography of the Holy Land/ it is stated
that they are occasionally eaten in Syria, though not
often.

De Busbecq, Seigneur of Indevelt, and Ambassador
to the Court of Portugal, in a letter to his friend
Nicholas Michault, written about 1554, gives the fol-
lowing story, which may amuse my readers. He
commences by giving a description of the scenery of
Constantinople, etc., and mentions various kinds of
fishes taken in the Bosphorus and the sea of Marmora,
and says also, " That the fishermen are for the most
part Greeks, as they take to the occupation more

* ' Under the Palms in Algeria and Tunis,' by the Hon. Lewis
Wingfield, vol. ii. p. 226.

HELTCIILE. SNAIL. 235

readily than the Turks, although the latter do not
despise fish when brought to table, provided they are
of the kinds which they consider clean ; as for the rest,
they would as lief take a dose of poison, as touch them.
I should tell you by the way, that a Turk would sooner
have his teeth or tongue torn out, than taste anything
which he considers unclean, as for instance, a frog, a
snail, or a tortoise. The Greeks are subject to the same
superstition. I had engaged a lad of the Greek Church
as purveyor for my people. His fellow-servants had
never been able to induce him to eat snails ; at last
they set a dish of them before him, cooked and seasoned
in such a way that he fancied it was some kind offish,
and helped himself to it most liberally. But when the
other servants, laughing and giggling, produced the
snail shells, and showed him that he had been taken in,
his distress was such as to baffle all description. He
rushed to his chamber where there was no end to his
tears, misery, and sickness. He declared that it would
cost him two months wages, at the least, to obtain
absolution for his sin ; it being the custom of Greek
priests to charge those who come for confession a price
varying with the nature and extent of the offence, and
to refuse absolution to those who do not comply with
their demand."*

In Hone's f E very-day Book/ we read that "No one
will marry in May, but, on the first morning of that
month, the maidens rise early to gather May-dew, which
they throw over their shoulder in order to propitiate
fate in allotting them a good husband. If they can

* ' The Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq,' &c, by
Charles Thornton Foster, Esq., M.A., and F. H. Blackburue Daniel,
M.A., vol. i. p. 124.

236 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

succeed, by the way, in catching a snail by the horns,
and throwing it over their shoulder, it is an omen of
good luck ; and if it is placed on a slate, then likewise
it will describe, by its turning, the initials of their future
husband's name." It is said that if on leaving the house
you see a black snail (slug ?) seize it boldly by one of
its horns, and throw it over your left shoulder ; you
may then go on your way prosperously; but if you
fling it over the right shoulder, you will draw down ill
luck. This practice is said to extend as far a south as
Lancashire.*

In Piedmont, to induce the snail to put out its horns,
children are accustomed to sing to it

" Limassa, limassa,
Tira fora, i to corn,
Dass no, i vad dal barbe
E ti tje fass taie."

In Sicily, children terrify the snail by informing it
that their mother is coming to burn its horns with a
candle ; and in Tuscany, they threaten the white snail
(la marinella) telling it to thrust out its little horns to
save itself from kicks and blows. f This reminds us of
the English children, who used to sing ;

" Snail, snail, come out of your hole,
Else we shall beat you as black as a coal ! "

According to the ' Archasologia Cambrensis,' in the
parish of St. Clear's, Carmarthenshire, small portions
of lands were formerly gambled away by means of snail
races. The rival snails were placed at the foot of a
post, and the one that first reached the top, won the
land for its master. In the Isle of Wight, the fishermen

* ■ Folklore of the Northern Counties of England.'
t ' Zoological Mythology,' vol. ii. pp. 74, 75.

HELICID^. — SNAIL. 237

of Atherfield and Brixton consider snails the best bait
for prawns, and horseflesh next ; and in the l Art of
Angling ' the " white snail," and likewise the u black
one " (slug ?) slit open that the white may appear, are
recommended as good bait for the chub early in the
morning, and likewise good night bait for the trout
and eel.*

The Rev. S. Baring G-ould, in f Queer Culprits/ gives
an account of the laws of Mediaeval Europe, respecting
the protection of persons, or things, from injuries by
animals, insects, and snails etc. — He says, according
to Jewish law, " If an ox gore a man or a woman that
they die, then the ox shall be surely stoned, and his
flesh shall not be eaten ; but the owner of the ox shall
be quit." After giving this command Moses proceeds
to enforce the doctrine of the responsibility of the
beast's owner and to ensure his punishment should he
wittingly let a dangerous animal run loose, also to
make provision for his security under some extenuating
circumstances. These commands were carried into the
laws of Mediaeval Europe ; the priests at the same time
introducing refinements of their own, and enforcing
them in numerous cases, which afford matter for curious
inquiry, and are full of technicalities and peculiarities
at once amusing and instructive, as throwing light on
the customs and habits of thought in those times. If a
child was injured by a sow, or a man killed by a bull,
the trial was conducted in precisely the same manner as
though sow or bull were morally criminal. They were
apprehended, placed before the ordinary tribunal, and
given over to execution. If an inroad of locusts or snails
takes place common law is helpless, it may pronounce

* ■ Tbo Art of Angling : Rock and Sea-fishing,' &c, by R. Brookes.

238 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

judgment, but who is it to execute its decrees ? Tem-
poral power being palpably unavailing, the spiritual
tribunal steps in ; the decision of the magistrates beiDg
useless, perhaps excommunication may suffice. This
then was an established maxim. If the criminal could
be reached, it was handed over to the ordinary courts
of justice; if, however, the matter was beyond their
control, it fell within the jurisdiction of Ecclesiastical
Courts." Bartholomew de Chasseneux, a noted lawyer
of the sixteenth century, gives the foil owing form of
excommunication. " snails, caterpillars, and other
obscene creatures, which destroy the food of our neigh-
bours, depart hence ! Leave these cantons which you
are devastating, and take refuge in those localities
where you injure no one. J. N. P/' etc.

On the 17th of August, 1487, snails were sentenced
at Macon.* The Norwegians are said to have had a
" Lemming-Litany " in their church service, in which
these pests were most solemnly exorcised. f

The shells of Helix pomatia are used for making small
whistles tor children. The apex of the shell is cut off,
and a piece of tin added; they are then sold for a penny
each; and who does not recollect the wonderful cats
made of the shells of the common garden snail, Helix,
aspersa, with heads of putty or cement, and how
anxious we were to become possessors of these beautiful
creatures ! They are now seldom seen, except in some
small out-of-the-way shop in a country town or village,
such trifles not suiting the tastes of the precocious
juveniles of the present day.

* ' Qneer Culprits, Curiosities of the Olden Times,' by S. Baring
Gould, M.A.

t ' Norsk, Lapp, and Finn,' by Frank Vincent, Jun., p. 98.

HELICID.E. — SNAIL. 239

The ancients seem to have studied the habits of these
mollusks, as besides Theophrastus, whom I have already
quoted, Aristotle also mentions them; and Teucer
speaks of the snail as " an animal destitute of feet and
spine and bone, whose back is clad with horny shell,
with long projecting and retreating eyes/'* and many
others. Hesiod calls the snail the " hero that carries
his house on his back," and Anaxilas says —

"You are e'en more distrustful than a snail,
Who fears to leave even his house hehind him."f

Somewhat different is the old English proverbial
rhyme,

" Good wives to snails should be akin,
Always to keep their homes within ;
Yet unlike snails they should not pack
All they are worth upon their back."

Gwillim, in his ' Heraldry/ informs us that the snail
is called Tardigrada domiporta, the "slow-going house-
bearer," and adds, " the bearing of the snail doth
signify that much deliberation must be used in matters
of great difficulty and importance; for although the
snail goeth most slowly, yet, in time she ascendeth to
the top of the highest tower, as Mr. Carew, of Antony,
hath wittily moralized in his poem, intituled ' The
Herring's Tail/ " He gives snails as the armorial
bearings of the Shelleys, but he also mentions whelks,
which shells are now borne by this family.

The crest of the Carpenters of Somersetshire is a

nail passant proper, shell argent ; and that of the

Galay family, a snail, horns erect, proper. In F.

Osborn's ' Miscellany/ 1659, it is said that mushrooms,

* Atheweus, ' Deipu.' bk. x. chap. 83, p. 720.
f Ibid, book ii. chap. 63, p. IDA.

240 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

snayles, etc., have crawled into the dishes of princes,
and are daily eaten in their Courts for dainties.*

To Dress Snails. — Take shell-snails, put them in
boiling water, then pick them out of the shells, salt
them, scour the slime from them, and then wash
them in two or three waters ; then dry them in a
linen cloth, then put them into a napkin with salt,
pepper, salad-oil, rosemary, thyme, parsley, and winter-
savoury, shred small, mingle all well together ; then,
having cleaned the shells, fill them with these ; lay them
on a gridiron, and broil them over a gentle fire, then
dish them, four or five dozen in a dish, fill them up
with oil, and serve them hot.f

To Dress Snails. — Snails that feed on vines are con-
sidered the best. Put some water into a saucepan, and
when it begins to boil, throw in the snails, and let them
boil a quarter of an hour ; then take them out of their
shells ; wash them several times, taking great pains to
cleanse them thoroughly ; place them in clean water,
and boil them again for a quarter of an hour ; then take
them out, rinse them, dry them, and place them with
a little butter in a frying-pan, and fry them gently for
a few minutes, sufficient to brown them ; serve them
with some piquante sauce. J

Snails cooked the French way. — Crack the shells and
throw them into boiling water, with a little salt and
herbs, sufficient to make the whole savoury ; in a quarter
of an hour take them out, pick the snails from the shells,
and boil them again ; then put them into a saucepan
with butter, parsley, a clove of garlic, pepper, thyme,

* ' Antiquarian Chronicle/ June, 1882.

f ' The Cooks' and Confectioners' Dictionary,' by John Nott.

J An uid French Recipe.

HELTCIDiE. SNAIL. 241

a bay-leaf, and a little flour ; when sufficiently done,
add the yolk of an egg, well beaten, and the juice of a
lemon, or some vinegar.

" To bake Snails. — Boil them, scour them, season them
with salt, pepper, and nutmeg; lay them into a pye
with marrow, a raw chicken cut in pieces, bits of lard,
and bacon without bone, whole mace, savoury herbs
shred, butter, and slices of orange or lemon ; having
filled your pye, close it up, and when it is baked
liquor it with white wine and butter.' - '*

To fry Snails. — Take shell-snails in the months of
January, February, or March ; when they are closed up
boil them tender, take them out of the shells, cleanse
them from the slime, flour them, fry them, dish them ;
pour over them a sauce made of butter, vinegar, fried
onions and parsley, with beaten butter, and juice of
orange, or oil, vinegar, and slices of lemon.

To make a Hash of Snails. — Boil them, cleanse them
and mince them, put them into a pipkin with butter or
oil, salt, pepper, nutmeg, whole capers, pistachios, the
yolks of hard eggs, and sweet herbs shred, let them
stew over the fire for half an hour ; lay toasts of fried
French bread in the bottom of the dish, and some
toasts round the snails in the dish.

Winter Soup of Snails. — Place the snails in boiling
water for a few minutes, when they will easily come
out of the shell. A little bit of hard matter is to be
taken from the head ; then stew them for a long time
in milk.f

Another recipe from the same source. — Scald the snails
to get rid of their shells, and then fry them with a few

* < Cooks' and Confectioners' Dictionary,' by John Nott.
f ' Life in Normandy,' vol. ii. p. 24.

E

242 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

crumbs of bread, and a little seasoning, viz., pepper,
salt, and a finish of fine herbs, or stew them with white
or brown sauce.*

The following are Spanish recipes for cooking
them : —

"Snails with Parsley. — Caracoles con Perejil. — Take a
slice of crumb of bread, soak it in vinegar and water,
pound it in a mortar with garlic, salt, pepper, parsley,
and mint, add. oil drop by drop, turning the pestle
the whole time in the same direction ; put the snails
which have been already boiled, and taken out of
their shells, into this, and serve cold, or fry the whole
together."

" Bag oilt of Snails. — Guisado de Caracoles. — Soak the
snails in salt water, then wash them in two or three
waters; take thyme, marjoram, bay-leaves, and. salt,
and fry them with chopped onions, in butter or oil ;
boil the snails, and take them out of their shells, or, if
you prefer it, put them shells and all, into the butter,
and. fry them. Let them be served as follows : soak
a piece of bread in vinegar and water, and pound it in
a mortar with a clove of garlic, a little pepper, salt,
parsley, and mint, chopped very fine ; add oil drop by
drop, turning the pestle all the time till it is quite a
smooth paste, and place it round the dish, putting the
snails in the centre.

French recipe for dressing Snails. — In spring and
autumn, the snails which are found in the vineyards
are good to eat, for those who like them ; and to clean
them and make them easy to get out of the shell they
must be dressed as follows : take a handful of charcoal
ashes, and put it into a saucepan or kettle with some

* ' Life in Normandy,' vol. ii. p. 62.

HELICID.E. SNAIL. 243

soft water, or water from a river ; when it boils, throw
in the snails, and leave them for a quarter of an hour.
Wheu you find the snails can easily be picked out of the
shell, take them and place them in some tepid water to
cleanse them ; then again put them into fresh water,
and let them boil for a minute or so, take them out, and
let them drain. Put into a saucepan a piece of butter,
with a bunch of parsley, chives, a clove of garlic, two
cloves, thyme, a bay-leaf, and some mushrooms, then
add the snails, being careful that they are well drained.
Pass the whole over the fire, adding a little flour mois-
tened with broth, a glass of white wine, salt, and pepper,
and let it simmer till the snails are quite tender, and
till the sauce is nearly dried up in the pan. Serve
them up with a sauce made as follows : take the yolks
of three eggs, beat them up with some cream, warm
it, but do not let it boil, add a little white vinegar or
verjuice, with a little nutmeg.*

Dijon method of cooking Snails. — Boil them in water
with some thyme ; take them out of their shells ; place
in the shells some fresh butter, kneaded with chopped
parsley ; replace the animal in its shell, and cover it
with some more of the butter, etc. When required for
eating, place them on an iron dish, or on one of porce-
lain. They are placed side by side, with the mouth of
the shell upwards, in little holes in the iron or porcelain
dish, which is made for the purpose, and they must
be warmed till the butter melts. Thus prepared, suails
sell at Dijon from five to ten centimes a piece.f

Another method of cooking Snails. — In the north and
east of France, Helix pomatia, or Helices vigneronnes,
the vine snails, are boiled in water, and taken out of

* ' La Cuieiniere Bourgeoise.' t Dr. E braid.

r2

244 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

their shells, then stewed in a saucepan with some fresh
butter and parsley ; or else the snails, after they have
been taken out of their shells, and are three parts
cooked, are put into a saucepan with a little water and
some butter, or with some broth, adding a little salt,
pepper, white wine, or vinegar. When they are cooked
and tender, pour over them a thickening of yolks of
eggs with chopped parsley ; the addition of nutmeg
and lemon -juice makes them more savoury.*

The inhabitants of Central France use several sauces
for snails, and the four principal are the following, ac-
cording to Dr. Ebrard, viz. : —

"L'ayoli, or ail-y-oli, of Languedoc; a paste made
with olive oil and pounded garlic."

" L'aillado, of Gascony; a most complicated sauce of
garlic, onions, chives, leeks, parsley, &c, with spices,
cloves, and nutmeg, the whole thickened with oil."

11 La limassade, of Provence, called La vinaigrette in
Paris."

"La cacalaousada, of Montpellier, composed of flour,
ham, sugar, &c. At Bordeaux the aillada is softened
with a mixture of bread, flour, and yolk of egg, boiled
with milk."

Stuffed mails are also considered very good. A fine
stuffing is made with snails previously cooked, fillets
of anchovies, nutmeg, spice, fine herbs, and a liaison
of yolk of eggs. The snail-shells are filled with this
stuffing, then placed before the fire, and served very
hot. In some countries Blainville states, that snails
are eaten, smoked and dried.

* Dr. Ebrard.

SEPIADjE. CUTTLE. 245

Fam. SEPIAD^E.

sepiaJL-cxjttle.

Sepia officinalis, Linnaaus. Common Cuttle-fish, or
Scuttle. — The animal is curious, very flat, with white
stripes across its body, the groundwork being dark
brown. The head is brown, as well as the arms, but
the inside of the latter is white, and is furnished with
four rows of suckers. Its two tentacular arms are
very long, expanded broadly at the tips, and are also
furnished with suckers. The beak is hard aud black*
shaped like that of a parrot.

The common cuttle-fish, theSeche, Seiche, or Casseron,
of the French, is very generally eaten by our fishermen,
and at Great Yarmouth they bring them in baskets to
the houses for sale, recommending them as excellent
and wholesome food. Cuttle-fish are often taken on
the fishing lines, and will follow the bait to the surface,
sucking it and holding fast by their long tentacles,*
but we seldom find them alive on the shore, though
their white hones are constantly picked up; and an
immense number of these bones sometimes strew the
beach from Beachy Head to Pevensey, while numbers
float on the surface of the water. This was particularly
the case there some years ago. It seemed as if there
had been some epidemic amongst the cuttles which
caused this great mortality, for certainly many basket-
fuls of bones might easily have been collected. They
are not without their use ; and at Liverpool, cuttle-
bones are sold to the druggists for making tooth-
powder, as much as twelve hundredweight arriving at

* < Sea Fish,' &c, by W. B. Lord.

246 EDIBLE BRITISH AIOLLUSCA.

a time;* and Pliny says that the ashes of calcined
shells of the Sepia were used for extracting* pointed
weapons which had pierced the flesh. -f-

In Germany it is called the Blackfisch, or Tiutenfisch,
and in Spain Chocos, Rellenas, Castanuelas, and Sipia ;
and the Manx name for it is Eeast-yn-vraain-olleij.

Cuttle-fishes are very common in the Mediterranean,
and are highly prized by the Neapolitans. In Corfu
both the Septia and Octopus are considered excellent
food, and are regarded as flesh. J The modern Greeks
also make Sepiadce, and especially the Octopodin, a
principal article of food; they dry them in great
quantities, and store them away for use to be boiled
or fried. Mr. R. A. Arnold mentions having seen both
kinds for sale in the markets at Athens, and he adds,
that these nondescripts fulfil every condition of the
Greek Lent, and are accordingly much eaten by pious
women. While on board the steamer, on the way to
Eubcea, it happened to be Good Friday, and Mr. Arnold
inquired of the steward what could be had for break-
fast, he replied in Greek, " Fasting food," and the first
dish was composed of polypus, crawfish, and vegetables,
mingled together and floating in oil. This was followed
by a dish of fried Sepia.§ Several kinds of Cephalo-
poda are eaten abroad. The Octopus vulgaris is eaten
when young and small at Nice, where it is much more
plentiful in the market than at Genoa ; and if it weighs
less than a pound, and is still tender, it is much
esteemed. Those who purchase it generally hammer

* Phipson's ' Utilization of Minute Life.'

t Pliny ' Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. bk. xxxii. c. 43.

X ' The Ionian Islands,' by Professor Austed.

§ ' From the Levant, the Black Sea, and the Danube,' vol. i. p. 79.

SEPIADiE. CUTTLE. 247

it well with a stick before cooking it; and at Mar-
seilles the fishermen beat them with a reed, until it is
broken, to make them tender. This is an ancient
custom, for Aristophanes in his ' Dedalus ' says, " It is
what is called being beaten like a cuttlefish to make it
tender."* It is also stated that the Greeks are careful
to drag it for some time upon a stone, holding it by
the opening in the body. The flesh is said to have a
peculiar taste, consequently that of the cuttle-fish and
calmar (loligo) is preferred. At Naples, shellfish mer-
chants of Sta. Lucia sell them ready cooked, t At
Venice, Octopi were sold ready boiled, and taken hot
from the cauldron. J I have seen them in the market
at Palma, Majorca, where they are called u Pop."

These Octopods, called Octopodia by the modern
Greeks, are regularly exposed for sale in the markets
of Smyrna, as they are in the bazaars in India; and
on the coast of the Red Sea the inhabitants fish up a
great quantity of Poiilps, which they both eat and
sell.§ The North American Indians are also partial to
them.

Plato, the comic writer, says : —

" Good-sized polypus in season

Should be boiled, -to roast them's treason,
But if early, and not big,

Koast them ; boil'd ain't worth a fig."

M. Verany gives the following description of it : —
" The common Poiilp (the Palpo of the Italians) is
scattered throughout the Mediterranean, and is found
on the coast of the Atlantic at the Canaries. According

* Ozenne. f See notes, ' Life in Normandy.'

% i The World, beyond the Esterelles,' by A. W. Buekland. § U/enue.

248 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

to facts collected by M. D'Orbigny, it has been found
at Hayti, Cuba, Bahia, the Isle of France, the East
Indies, and in the Red Sea. . . . This Cephalopod
lives almost always amougst rocks, and generally hides
itself in the holes and crevices, into which it penetrates
with great ease, its body being very supple and elastic.
It is in these recesses that he lies watching for the
auimals on which he lives; as soon as he perceives
them, he cautiously leaves his den, darts like an arrow
on his victim, which he wraps himself about, clasps in
his serpent-like arms, and fixes, by means of his
suckers. . . . Sometimes he places himself upon sandy
ground at a short distance from the rocks, and is
careful to construct a hiding-place. For this purpose
he brings together, in the form of a circle, a quantity
of pebbles, which he carries by fixing them on his
arms by means of his suckers. Then, having formed
a sort of crater, he ensconces himself in it, and there
waits patiently for some fish or crab to pass, which he
skilfully seizes." " The young Poiilps in summer
come to the pebbly shores, and they are sometimes
met with in muddy places, from which they are taken
by the trawl, together with numbers of Eledon (Ele-
done cirrhosus). They are usually fished for with a line
without a hook, instead of which is substituted a piece
of dog-fish, a bit of cuttle-fish, a white fish, a bone, a
piece of suet, or some attractive substance weighted
with a small stone. . . . They are also caught with
a small olive-branch, fixed at the end of a rod, fitted
with a hook, which is drawn backwards and forwards
before the openings of the holes and crevices of the
rocks."

H. Verany further states that the fishermen catch

SEPIADvE. CUTTLE. 249

the large ones with the leister, or trident, and in
summer the young Poiilps are caught with a line
weighted with lead, furnished with a cork fitted with
several hooks, covered with pieces of scarlet cloth,
twisted into thongs. He adds, that the largest Poulp
he ever saw was about three yards long, and weighed
nearly half a hundredweight, and was captured by a
fisherman with his hands only. Poulps of thirty
pounds weight are not rare at Nice, and those of
twenty pounds are common.

Dr. J. H. Bennet has seen at Mentone a Poulp at
least two metres in length, including the tentacles . . .
and further adds, that a young Italian with whose
family he was acquainted, and who was a first rate
swimmer, nearly lost his life from the attack of one
of these monsters, about a kilometre from Leghorn.
He was resting upon a rock covered with seaweed,
after having swum a long time when a Poulp seized
him and would certainly have dragged him into the
water and killed him, if some fishermen who were
in a boat had not heard his cries, and come to his
assistance.*

Octopus vulgaris is rare on the British coast. I
recollect that some years ago, one was found on the
shore at Beachy Head, by two fishermen, who put it
into a large bucket or tub, and took it round to most
of the houses at Eastbourne for exhibition; and Mr.
Gosse found one, in 1860, on the beach at Babbicombe.
Dr. Spence, of Lerwick, in 1862, sent an account to
Dr. Allman, Professor of Natural History at Edinburgh,
of a huge cuttle-fish, which was thrown on shore some-

* ' La Mediterranee, La Riviere de Genes et Menton,' par Jacques
Henri Bennet.

^50 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

where on the Shetland Isles, its body measuring seven
feet, and its arms sixteen feet in length. Very large
Ceplialopoda are found in the Pacific, and also in
the Indian Seas, and are said to seize canoes, and drag
them down; and woe betide the unfortunate bather
should he happen to be taken in the grasp of one of
these monsters ; and on the authority of Sir Grenville
Temple, in Beale's ' History of the Sperm Whale/ an
anecdote is given, showing what happened in the
Mediterranean to a Sardinian captain, who was bathing
at Jerbeh. He felt one of his feet in the grasp of one
of these animals, and tried with his other foot to dis-
engage himself, but his limb was immediately seized
by another of the monster's arms. He then en-
deavoured with his hands to free himself, but these
also in succession were firmly grasped by the polypus,
and the poor man was shortly found drowned, with all
his limbs firmly bound together by the twining arms
of the fish ; and it is extraordinary, that where this
happened, the water was scarcely four feet deep.
Fredol, in ' Le Monde de la Mer/ states that the
famous diver, Piscinola, who at the desire of the
Emperor Frederick II., dived in the Straits of Messina,
saw, with much alarm, enormous Poi'dps attached to
the rocks, their arms several yards long, quite capable
of destroying a man.

Pliny gives a description of the dangerous powers of
the polypus for destroying a human being in the water ;
embracing his body, it counteracts his struggles, and
draws him under with its feelers, and its numerous
suckers.* It is said that the fishermen at the present
day, on the coast of Normandy, state that the polypus,

* Pliny, ' Nat. Hist,' vol. ii. bk. ix. chap. 48, and note.

SEPIADiE CUTTLE. 251

which the j call Ghatrou (or La pieuvre), is a most
formidable enemy to swimmers and divers, for when it
has embraced the limbs with its tentacles, it adheres
with such tenacity that it is quite impossible for a
person to disengage himself, or to move any of his
1 mbs.*

The common Octopus punctatus of the west coast of
iSTorth America is the largest of its tribe hitherto studied;
but the gigantic squids far exceed it in size, as we
shall read presently. Mr. W. H. Dall, in the 'American
Naturalist/ 1873, tells us that this species of Octopus
occurs abundantly at Sitka and there reaches a length
of sixteen feet on a radial spread of nearly twenty-
eight feet, but the whole mass is much smaller than
the decapodous (or ten-armed) cephalopoda of lesser
length. In the Octopus above mentioned, the body
would not exceed six inches in diameter, and a foot in
length, and the arms attain an extreme tenuity towards
their lips. Dr. W. 0. Ayres informed Mr. Yerrill,
the writer of the above, that he has often seen this
species exposed for sale in the markets of San Francisco,
where it is eaten by the French, and that specimens
with the arms six or seven feet long are common; and
Professer W. H. Brewer states that he has seen speci-
mens in the same markets which spread fourteen feet
across the outstretched arms.f

The ten-armed Cephalopods, or Gigantic squids, attain
larger dimensions than the Octopus, viz. the species
of Architeuthis (a genus which is closely allied to
Ommastrephes), Onychoteuthis robusta (or Lestoteic-

* ' Life in Normandy,' note. — D. D.

f ' Cephnlopods of the North Eastern Coast of America,' by A. E.
Verrill, Part i. p. 252.

252 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

this), as the following account taken from Mr. A. E.
Verrill's 'The Cephalopods of the North-Eastern Coast
of America/ will prove. He mentions the early litera-
ture of Natural History containing allusions to large
species of Cephalopods, accompanied by more or less
fabulous and usually exaggerated descriptions, as for
instance the one given by old Eric Pontoppidan, which
I shall quote further on. Professor Steenstrup, and
Dr. Harting were the first to describe and figure these
Gigantic squids scientifically. The American fishermen
frequently meet with these big squids, in the waters of
Newfoundland and the adjacent coasts ; and the cod-
fishermen who visit the Grand Banks, appear to have
been long familiar with them, and occasionally to have
captured and used them as bait. The whalemen state
that the sperm whale feed upon huge squid, and that
when wounded they often vomit large fragments of
them in such a condition as to be recognizable,* and this
statement is corroborated by Mr. P. Warrington, of
Apothecaries' Hall, who informed Mr. H. Woodward
that the test of the genuineness of i( Ambergris " as
imported, which is found in the sperm whale (Physeter
macrocephalus) is, that it is full of the undigested beaks
of the Galamary, upon which it feeds; and one of the
"Delphinidse/' the Hyperoodon, or Bottle-headed whale,
is also said to feed upon cuttle-fishes, as Mr. W. Vrolik
found in the stomach of one specimen about ten
millions of the mandibles of a species of Loligo.f

According to Mr. H. Woodward, the undigested
remains of fossil cuttle-fishes are frequently noticed
within the ribs of the Ichthyosauri, and Plesiosauri of

* Maurz's ■ Sailing Directions,' as quoted by Mr. A. E. Verrill.

f Description de ' Deux Cephalopodes gigantesques,' par P. Harting.

SEPIAD.E. — CUTTLE. 253

our Lias.* Mr. A. E. Verrill thinks it probable that
only three distinct forms exist amongst the large
Newfoundland specimens of Architeuthis, and two of
these may be merely the males and females of one
species. The Grand Banks specimen (Architeuthis
prince ps) was found floating on the surface, on the
Grand Banks, Newfoundland, October 1871, bv Cap-
tain Campbell, of the Schooner ( B. D. Hoskins/ of
Gloucester, Mass. The body measured fifteen feet in
length, four feet eight inches in circumference. The
arms were mutilated, but the portions remaining were
estimated to be nine or ten feet long, and twenty-two
inches in circumference, two being shorter than the
rest. It was estimated to weigh 2000 lbs. The
"Thimble Tickle" specimen was captured on the 2nd
November, 1878, by Stephen Sherring, a fisherman,
who was out in a boat with two other men, and observed
some bulky object not far from shore, and they supposed
it to be a portion of a wreck, and rowed towards it.
To their horror they found themselves close to a huge
fish, having large glassy eyes, which was making
desperate efforts to escape, and churning the water
into foam by the movement of its immense arms and
tail. It was aground, and the tide was ebbing. From
the funnel at the back of its head it was ejecting large
volumes of water, this being its method of moving
backwards, the force of the stream, by the reaction of
the surrounding medium, driving it in the required
direction. At times the water from the siphon was as
black as ink. Finding the monster partially disabled,
the fishermen plucked up courage enough to throw the
grapnel of their boat, the sharp flukes of which, having
* c Intellectual Observer,' vol. xi. p. 165.

254 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

barbed points, sunk into the soft body. To the grapnel
they had attached a stout rope which they had carried
ashore and tied to a tree, so as to prevent the fish from
going out with the tide. It was a happy thought, for
the devil-fish found himself effectually moored to the
shore. His struggles were terrific as he flung his ten
arms about in dying agony. The fishermen took
care to keep a respectful distance from the long ten-
tacles, which ever and anon darted out like great
tongues from the central mass. At length it became
exhausted, and as the water receded it expired. The
fishermen, knowing no better, proceeded to convert it
into dog's meat. It was a splendid specimen, the
largest yet taken, the body measuring twenty feet

from the beak to the extremity of the tail The

circumference of the body is not stated, but one of the
arms measured thirty-five feet. This must have been
a tentacle. Twenty other specimens are mentioned by
Mr. Verrill, and their dimensions given.

It is not only on the north-eastern coasts of America
that these gigantic cephalopods have been met with,
for Mr. W. H. Dall, discovered a large and very in-
teresting species, viz., Onychoteuthis robusta, near Iliu-
link, Unalashka Island, off the coast of Alaska, in
1872, thrown upon the beach, and Mr. T. W. Kirk,
in the ' Transactions of the Wellington Philosophical
Society/ October, 1879, describes the occurrence of five
specimens of giant cuttle-fish on the coast of New
Zealand, of the species Architeuthis Mouchezi(?) . The
cuttle-bone of one, when first extracted, measured six
feet three inches in length, and eleven inches in width.*

* • The Cephalopods of the North Eastern Coast of America,' Parts
i. and ii., by A. E. Verrill.

SEPIAD.E. — CUTTLE. 255

Large specimens are found in Japan, and also at
Bermuda, and a sailor who had seen some very large
at the latter place, and had heard of people being
attacked by them whilst bathing, told me that he had
ever after felt shy of bathing in the sea, and that even
the thought of them made him shudder. A friend of
mine told me that, on his voyage to Ceylon, many
years ago, he used to beguile the time by fishing-,
and once he caught a huge cephalopod. When
it was hauled on board, it stuck and clung with such
tenacity to the deck and ropes, that it could not
be pulled off, and was at last cut to pieces with a
hatchet.

M. Fiourens communicated to the French Academy
an account of an enormous specimen which was seen
by Lieut. Bouyer of the French Steamer ' Alecton/
in November 1860, forty leagues from Teneriffe.
The body appeared to be from fifteen to eighteen
feet in length, and it was of a reddish colour.
It has been designated, Architeuthis Bouyeri, pro-
visionally.

The Norwegian Kralcen, Kraxen, or Krabben, was
held to belong to the Cephalopods, and old Eric Pon-
toppidan, a Norwegian bishop, describes it as an animal
the largest in creation, whose body arises above the
surface of the water like a mountain, and its arms like
the masts of ships ; and he adds, that a whole regiment
of soldiers could easily go through their manoeuvres
on its back. The Bishop of Midaros is said to have
discovered one of these gigantic Tcrakens asleep in the
sun, and believing it to be a large rock, raised an altar
on its surface and celebrated Mass. The kraken re-
mained stationary during the ceremony, but the bishop

256 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

had scarcely regained the shore, before the monster
replunged into the deep.*

The Hydra of Lerna, destroyed by Hercules, was
most certainly a polypus, or sepia, and in at least one of
the early representations of the subject, the animal is
most correctly drawn as a cuttle-fish or polypus.
Montfaucon represents the Hydra as a " Monster with
several heads — some seven, others nine, and others
fifty — but that it was not a dragon is evident, not only
rom the waves which are at its feet, but also from the
form and capaciousness of its breast, and whole body ;
and again, its connection with the ocean can be traced
in the crab being sent to its assistance by Juno, to bite
Hercules in the heel, and when he crushed it, he over-
came the Hydra. Juno, unable to succeed in her
attempts to lessen the fame of Hercules, placed the crab
amongst the constellations, and it forms one of the signs
of the zodiac. It represents the month of June, because,
when the sun has come to this constellation he begins
to go backwards like a crab."f

Pliny mentions several kinds of polypi, one of which
he especially calls the land polypus, and states that it
is larger than that of the sea ; and Hardouin says it is
the species found on the seashore, which more fre-
quently comes on dry land than the other kinds. J

In the Polynesian islands, the natives have a curious
contrivance for catching cuttle-fish. Jt consists of a
straight piece of hard wood, a foot long, round, and
polished, and not half an inch in diameter. Near one

* ' \,o Monde de la Mer,' par Fredol.

f * Nat. Hist, of Crabs and Lobsters,' by Frank Buckland, Esq. Jo'nt
Appendix, No. ii. ' Report on Ciab and Lobster Fisheries, &c, 1877.'
X Pliuj, ' Nut. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. c. 46; see note.

SEPIAD^). CUTTLE. 257

end of it a number of beautiful pieces of the cowrie, or
tiger-shell, are fastened one over another, like the scales
of a fish, until it is nearly the size of a turkey's egg",
and resembles the cowrie. It is suspended in a hori-
zontal position by a strong line, and lowered by the
fisherman from a small canoe, till it nearly reaches the
bottom. The fisherman jerks the line to cause the
shell to move, as if it were alive, and the jerking*
motion is called tootoofe, the name of the contrivance.
The cuttle-fish, attracted by the cowries, darts out one
of its arms, and then another, and so on, until it is
quite fastened among the openings between the pieces
of cowrie, when it is drawn up into the canoe and
secured.

The natives of the South Seas have also another
special bait for the Octopus, which appears to differ
slightly from the kind already described. It is said
to be a rat-shaped bait, round which, when dangled in
the water, over the edge of the reef, the Octopus wraps
himself so tenaciously as to enable the fisherman to pull
him out. ... In the centre of this bait is a piece of
quartz, sometimes of an agate species, rubbed into a
cone. This is backed by pieces of mottled shell kept
in place by cocoa-nut fibre, which passes underneath,
and extends past the point of the cone, into the sem-
blance of a tail. Mr. Lambert, the authority for the
above, further tells us, (( that there are one or two
characteristic native traditions at Tonga Tabu (Figi
Islands), relative to the peculiar hostility of the
Octopus tribe to the rat tribe. Formerly they were
warm friends, but a rat on a volcanic island, which w
suddenly found to be sinking below the surface of the
water, having called on an Octopus to carry him on his

s

258 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

head to a more secure dwelling-place with promises of
cocoa-nuts in return for safe carriage, not only forgot
to pay his passage, but, having felt ill on the voyage,
behaved in anything but a nice manner ; these facts
so rankled in the hearts of the Odojii, that they are
quite unable to resist making an onslaught on a bait
which combines the elements of both rat and nut. The
natives set great store by these baits, which they call
Makafechis."*

The following legend of the Cuttle-fish, from ' Tales
of Old Japan/ may not be uninteresting to some of my
readers. " The citizens of Yedo flock for purposes
convivial or religious, or both, to Meguro, one of the
many places round Yedo, and cheek by jowl with old
shrines and temples you meet with many a pretty tea-
house. In one of them a thriving trade is carried on
in the sale of wooden tablets, with the picture of a
pink cuttle-fish on a bright blue ground. These are,
cx-votos, destined to be offered up at the Temple of
Yakushi-Niurai, the Buddhist's ^Esculapius, which
stands opposite, and concerning the foundation of
which, the following legend is given. 'In the days of
old there was a priest called Jikaku, who, at the age of
forty years, it being the autumn of the tenth year of
the period called Tencho (a.d. 833), was suffering from
a disease of the eyes, which had attacked him three
years before. In order to be healed of this disease he
carved a figure of Yakushi-Niurai, to which he used to
offer up his prayers. Five years later he went to
China, taking with him the figure as his guardian
saint, and at a place called Kairetsu it protected him
from robbers, wild beasts, and from other calamities.
* • Voyage of the Wanderer.'

SEPIAD^E. — CUTTLE. 259

There he passed his time in studying the sacred laws,
both hidden and revealed, and, after nine years, set sail
to return to Japan. When he was on the high seas
a storm arose, and a great fish attacked and tried to
swamp the ship, so that the rudder and mast were
broken, and the nearest shore being that of a land
inhabited by devils, to retreat or advance was equally
dangerous. Then the holy man prayed to the patron
saint, whose image he carried, and as he prayed,
behold the true Yakushi-Niurai appeared in the centre
of the ship, and said to him, " Verily thou hast travelled
far that the sacred laws might be revealed for the
salvation of many men, now therefore take my image,
which thou carriest in thy bosom, and cast it into the
sea, that the wind may abate, and that thou may est be
delivered from this land of devils. " The commands of
the saints must be obeyed ; so, with tears in his eyes,
the priest threw the sacred image into the sea. Then
did the wind abate, and the waves were stilled, and
the ship pursued her course as though she was being
drawn by unseen hands, until she reached a safe haven.
In the tenth month of the same year, the priest again
set sail, trusting to the power of his patron saint, and
reached the harbour of Tsukushi without mishap. For
three years he prayed that the image he had cast away
might be restored to him ; until at last, one night, he
was warned in a dream, that on the sea-shore at
Matsura, Yakushi-Niura would appear to him. In
consequence of this dream he went to the province of
Hizeu, and landed on the shore at Hirato, where, in
the midst of a blaze of light, the image which he had
carved appeared to him twice, riding on the back of a
cuttle-fish. Thus was the image restored to the world

s 2

£60 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

by a miracle/ In commemoration of his recovery from
the disease of the eyes, and of his preservation from
shipwreck, that these things might be known to all
posterity, the priest established the worship of Tako
Yakushi-Niurai (Yahushi-Nhirai of the Cuttle-fish^,
and came to Meguro, where he built the temple of
Fudo Sama,* another Buddhist divinity. At this time
there was an epidemic of small-pox in the village, so
that men fell down and died in the street, and the
holy man prayed to Fudo Sama, that the plague might
be stopped. Then the god appeared to him and said,
* The Saint Yakushi-Niurai of the Cuttle-fish, whose
image thou carriest, desires to have his place in this
village, and he will heal this plague. Thou shalt
therefore raise a temple to him here, that not only this
small-pox, but other diseases for future generations,
may be cured by his power/ Hearing this, the priest
shed tears of gratitude, and having chosen a piece of
wood, he carved a large figure of his patron saint of
the Cuttle-fish, and placed the smaller image iuside the
larger, and laid it up in this temple, to which people
still flock that they may be healed of their diseases/'

This story is said to be translated from a small ill-
printed pamphlet sold by the priests of the temple,
all the decorations of which, even to the bronze lantern
in the middle of the court-yard, are in the form of a
cattle-fish, the sacred emblem of the place. f

Both the Chinese and the Japanese make use of
Octojnts sinensis (d'Orbigny) as food when youug, and
season it with vinegar and ginger, and also of a species

* ' Fudo,' literally ' the motionless ; ' Buddha, iu the state called
Nirvana.

t ' Tales of Old Japan,' by A. B« Mitfovd, vol i. p. 40.

SEPIAD.E. CUTTLE. 261

of Loligo. The Chinese have a special boat for the

Cuttle-fish fishery, which is carried on both by day and

night ; and if by night a fire is lighted on deck, that the

glare may attract the fish to the surface. The season

for cuttle-fish extends from the second to the eighth

Chinese month (March to September), and the haul is

most abundant in the fifth, sixth, and seventh months

(June, July, and August). They are taken with nets,

and also with hooks. ... It is only in rainy weather

that Cuttle-fish are brought at once to the market and

sold fresh. In fine seasons they are dried in the sun

ou the rocky islands, and then disposed of. ... To

dry Cuttle-fish they must be cut open and eviscerated,

and finally exposed on a bamboo mat in the sun.

When quite dry they are packed in wooden tubs and

flattened by the aid of human feet.*

The flesh of the Loligo, or Squid, was highly esteemed

by the ancients, and Ephippus recommends the eating

of Squids and Cuttle-fish together.

"And many polypi, with wondrous curls."

A then , Deipnosophiets.

And Sotades, the comic poet, introduces a cook, speak-
ing as follows : —

"To these I added cuttlefish and squilis;
A fine dish is the squill when carefully cooked,
But the rich cuttlefish is eaten plain ;
(Though I did stuff them all with a rich forced-meat
Of almost every kind of herb and flower).

Bk. vii. c. 41, At/ien,, Deipnosophists,

They are still exposed for sale in the bazaars and
markets in India.

With us the Squid, or Squill, as it is sometimes caliea
at Weymouth, is only used as bait. It is good for
* China, ' Imperial Maritime Customs.'

262 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

catching conger-eels and whiting-pout, also for cod-
fishing ; but it is also a great enemy to the fisherman ;
and on the French coast they say that the Galmar, as
they call it, often tears the fish from their hooks
during the night when they are fishing with lines.
The inhabitants of the Basque provinces esteem Gal-
mars highly as food, and call them Ghipirones, and at
Bayonne they are also known by the same name, as
well as by that of Gornet or Gomiche. The Spanish
names for Loligo vulgares are Maganos, Gibiones, Lura,
Calamars, Rintillas, and Calamarons ; and in Italy it
is known by several names also, amongst them, Cala-
maro, Galamajo, Totano; and Pocuranac at Fiuine.*

M. Cantraine says that the young only of Loligo
sagittafa are esteemed as food, and are called Calama-
retti ; but that Loligo subulata is the species most
sought after, its flesh being very delicate. Both these
are Mediterranean species. f

Both in China and Japan, Squids are regularly col-
lected for food, and Mr. Arthur Adams gives, in the
1 Zoologist/ p. 7518, an interesting account of the
Squid-fishery off Nisi-Bama, in the Oki Islands. On
nearing the anchorage, on the 19th November, 1859,
they were struck by the number of lights on the water,
moving in all directions, and on inquiry they found
that they were from fishing-boats on the look out for
rka-surame, or Squids. The lights were produced by
kindling f< birch-bark in small kinds of gratings, with
long wooden handles, machines known among seafaring
men by the name of devils. The flame of the fires is
very clear and vivid ; and the devils, being held over

* ' The Fisheries of the Adriatic,' by Faber.

t ' Malacologie Mediterraue'ene et Littorale,' par F. Cantraine.

SEPIADtE. CUTTLE. 263

the sides of the boats, attract the Squids." They were
a species of Ommastrephes, usually called by the fisher-
men the Flying-squids, or Sea-arrows, as they swim very
rapidly over the surface of the water, in immense shoals.
Tliey were taken by "jigging." The "jig " is of iron,
and consists of a long shank, surmounted by a circlet
of small recurved hooks. These cuttles are favourite
articles of food, both with Japanese and Chinese, and
are carefully dried for the market, and sold in great
quantities. Near Hakodadi there is, we are told by
Mr. Adams, a small fishing village exclusively devoted
to the catching and curing of the Squid; and many
hundreds of thousands may be seen daily drying in the
open air, all nicely cleaned ; each kept flat by means of
little bamboo stretchers, and suspended in regular rows
on lines, which are raised on poles about six feet from
the ground. The open spaces, and all the houses in
the village, are filled with these squid-laden lines.
Squids everywhere form a novel kind of screen.

Pliny speaks of the Springing loligo, and Trebius
Niger remarks that whenever it is seen darting above
the surface of the water, it portends a change ; and also
that they sometimes dart above the surface in such vast
numbers, as to sink the ships upon which they fall.*

Another of the Teuthidce, which is rare on our coast,
but is common in the Mediterranean, Sepiola Rondeletii,
is eaten at Nice, and is called Supieta, or Sepiata, and
is said to be a very delicate morsel. The Italians call
it Calamaretto, Zottolina, Sepollna, and Seppietta; and
quantities are consumed at Genoa and Leghorn, and it
is also used as food in Sicily and Sardinia.

Aristotle speaks of the Teuthis, which he says is a

* Pliny, ' Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. bk. xxxii. c. 6.

2G4 EDIBLE BItlTISH MOLLUSCA.

kind of Cuttle-fish, but different from the Sepia, and has

ink of a pale colour. Alexis talks of cooking them

thus : —

" I took the teuthides, cut off their fins,
Adding a little f;it, I then did sprinkle
Some thin shred herbs o'er all, for seasoning."

Bk. vii. c. 130, Athen., Deipnosophists.

And Antiphanes, in his * Female Fisher/ says (refer-

riug to the ink) : —

" Give me some cuttle-fish first. O Hercules,
They've dirtied every place with ink ; here, take them,
And wash them clean."

According to Pliny, Anaxilaus states that the ink
of the Sepia is possessed of such remarkable potency
that if it is put into a lamp, the light will become
entirely changed, and all present will look as black as
Ethiopians.*

The ink of the Cuttle, or Sepia, is dried, and imported
from China to Liverpool, where it arrives either in
cakes, or is there made into cakes called Sepia, which
is used in painting. Dr. Lankester, in his little work
on ' Animal Products/ says that the Cuttle-fish is very
abundant in the Mediterranean, and that the ink-bag
is carefully extracted, the liquid being poured out to
allow of its drying as quickly as possible. It is then
triturated with a little caustic soda, or potash, and after-
wards boiled with caustic lye for half an hour, when it
is filtered, and the caustic liquid is then treated with
an acid till it is neutralized. After standing, a pre-
cipitate falls, which is collected, washed with water,
and finally dried by a gentle heat. This substance is
the dark pigment used by artists under the name of
Sepia.

* Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. bk. xxxii. c. 52.

SEPIAD.*:. CUTTLE. 265

The polypus is the symbol of Messina, and, according
to Montfaucon, is figured on a medal of that city, with
a man's head on the reversed side.

Pliny recommends the polypus for arresting 'haemor-
rhage, it is bruised and then applied ; and he further
adds, concerning it, that of itself it emits a sort of
brine, and therefore needs none to be used when it is
cooked; that it should be sliced with a reed, as it is
spoilt if an iron knife is used, " becoming tainted
thereby, owing to the antipathy which naturally exists
between it and iron," and Dalecbamps suggests that
this means, " it being the nature of flesh to cling to the
knife/''*

In France, Octopus vulgaris is highly prized for bait,
and is also considered very good as food, and in ' Life
in Normandy ' is the following recipe for cooking it. : —
" A dish of cuttle-fish is divided in the centre by a
slice of toast; on one side of the toast is a mass of
cuttle-fish stewed with a white sauce, and on the other,
a pile of them beautifully fried, of a clear even colour,
without the slightest appearance of grease. The flour
of haricot-bean, very finely ground, and which is as good
as bread-crumbs, is added."

To Cook Cuttles (Mont St. Michel Recipe). — First
place them in boiling water and allow them to remain
some time in order to make them tender. Then cut
them in pieces and boil them with vegetables and
onions, then fry them in a paste made of batter.

The water in which the fish has been boiled is used
for soup.f

" To Cook Cuttles. — First cleanse them thoroughly
by scalding ; then rub the body and legs (feelers ?) with

* Pliny ' Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. bk. xxxii. c. 42. *f* Ozenne.

2 66 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

garlic, and afterwards cut the whole into small pieces,
and fry in olive oil ; one or two fresh gathered Chili
peppers being introduced as seasoning."*

"Jersey Method of Cooking Cuttle-fish. — Boil them
for ten minutes, then take them out, and the skin will
come off like a glove, leaving the fish like so many-
sticks of horse-radish. Then boil them for an hour
longer ; take them out and cut them up, and fry them
with onions. Some prefer slices of bacon fried with
them instead of onions, and served up with milk sauce.f
They are plentiful about October, and large ones are
sold in the markets at a penny each."

Italian Recipe. — Fry them in oil. They cook them
thus at a small village on the Riviera, not far from
Savona, and they taste like skate.

Weymouth Recipe for Cooking Common Cuttle, or
Scuttle. — Cut off the head and feelers, and take out
the white bone ; then boil for a short time till tender —
generally ten minutes or so will suffice. It is said to
taste like lobster.

Alexis, in his ' Wicked Woman/ introduces a cook,

saying : —

"Now these three cuttle-fish I have just bought
For one small drachma ; and when I have cut off
Their feelers and their fins, I then shall boil them,
And cutting up the main part of their meat
Into small dice, and rubbing in some salt
(After the guests already are set down),
I then shall serve them in the frying-pan,
And serve up hot towards the end of supper."

Cuttles are in the best season from January to the
end of March, and they may be cooked thus : — Boil

* ' The Gun, Rod, and Saddle,' by Capt. J. Parker Gilmore.
t Mr. A. Morton.

SEPIAD^l. — CUTTLE. 267

them and cut them in pieces, season with scallions
and onions, and add a little vinegar towards the end.

Spanish Method of Stewing Cuttles. — Stew them
over a very slow fire in oil or butter, and, before
serving, add a little water, salt, bread-crumbs, saffron,
and a soupgon of new honey or sugar.

Montpellier Method of Cooking Sepiola Rondeletii. —
Stuff it with a force-meat of fish, then fry the arms and
cut them in pieces, and place them round the dish.*

In Spain the cuttle-fishes {Sepiola and Loligo ?) Ca-
lamares are eaten, either broiled on a gridiron, or
stewed in red wine in an earthern jar ; after which you
may boil them if you like, or serve them in wine, or
stew them, adding, after they are tender, a little flour,
and the yolk of an egg, well beaten, and this is con-
sidered the most wholesome way- of dressing them.

At Palma, Majorca, they are usually stuffed with a
force-meat, and I found them most palatable, the
flavour resembling that of the lobster. ■

In Andalusia the Calamar, or Choco, is much prized,
and is very plentiful; and Major Byng Hall mentions
them as one of the great treats of the natives of
Madrid, f

Another species of Octopus, viz. Eledone moschatus }
which is found in the Mediterranean, is eaten by the
lower classes in Italy, either boiled, fried, or made into
a ragout ; and in Sicily and Sardinia, where it is abun-
dant, the fishermen use it largely for food. J They
know it by the following names, Muscardino, Muscarolo,
and Folpo da risi.

* Ozenne. f ' The Queen's Messenger.' + Ozenne.

268 EDTBLE BRITISH MOLLTJSCA.

Fam. CIDAKIDjE.

ECHINUS.— SEA. EGG.

Echinus sph^era, Miiller. Common Sea- egg, or Sea-
urchin. — A wish has been expressed that I should in-
clude the " Sea-egg " in my ' Edible Mollusca/ but I
scarcely feel justified in doing so, as it is not a mollush,
and has no other claim to appear on these pages further
than its being fit for food.

It belongs to another class of animals, the Radiata, or
Ecliinodermata, which includes the star-fishes, and the
Holothuriadcp,. The Radiata are so called because all
their parts radiate from a common centre.

Echinus sphcera is generally of a reddish colour, or
purplish, and has white spines, in some tinged with
purple.

Pliny states that the Sea-urchin moves along by
rolling like a ball, which is the reason that it is so
often found with the prickles rubbed off ; also " that
these creatures foreknow the approach of a storm at
sea, and that they take up little stones with which
they cover themselves, as a sort of ballnst ; for they
are very unwilling, by rolling along, to wear away
their prickles. As soon as seafaring people observe
this, they at once moor their ship with several
anchors,"* and we are told that the natives of Apia
Tali Upolu (Samoa), say they can foretell a storm
before its appearance, by noticing the Echini crawling
into snug holes, where they may lie secure on the
reefs, undisturbed by the raging waters. " The sea
roars, and the Echini listen," is the Samoan proverb to

* Pliny, « Nat. Hist.' vol. ii. bk. ix. c. 51, p. 427.

CIDAJtnLE. SEA-EGGS. 269

describe prudence.* By Aristotle it is called the
"migratory fish/' Professor Forbes, in his 'History
of British Star-fishes/ observes that " it is with their
spines that the Echini move themselves, seize their
prey, and bring it to their mouths by turning the rays
of their lower edge in different directions. The mouth
is generally turned to the ground, and the five teeth
which project from it form part of a remarkable dental
apparatus, known by the fanciful appellation of ' Aris-
totle's lantern/ "f

In heraldry we find, according to Mr. Moule, that the
Echinus is borne, the arms of the Alstowne family being
gules, three sea-urchins in pale argent; and those of
Alstanton, azure, three sea-urchins argent. The shells
of Echinus sphcera, the common sea-egg, are often
used for making emery cushions, cases for yard mea-
sures, and other toys.

Pennant mentions sea-eggs being used for food in
many parts of England ; and Mrs. Gratty, in ' Old Folks
from Home/ if I remember correctly, states that
Echinus lividus, or "purple egg-urchin," is eaten on
the west coast of Ireland. It is one of the burrowing
species, and lives in holes formed by it in the rocks.
Mr. W. Thompson informed Professor Forbes that he
had seen it in abundance in the South Isles of Arran.
" It was always stationary, the hole in which it is found
being cup-like, yet fitting so as not to impede its
spines. Every one lived in a hole fitted to its own
size, the little ones in little holes, and the large ones
in large holes ; and their purple spines and regular

* 'A Lady's cruise in a French Man-of-war.'
f. Foxbes's ' British Star-fishes,' p. 154

270 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

forms presented a most beautiful appearance, studding
the bottoms of the grey limestone rock pools."*

At the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris,
I have seen specimens of this Echinus in a block of
sandstone from the Baie de Douarnenez, in Finisterre ;
also, specimens of Echinus perforans in granite rock
from the Bay of Croisic. How these animals bore
into such hard substances is still a question ; it is
supposed by some that they first perforate with their
teeth and then soften the rocks by some secreted
solvent. f

A friend of mine, who examined some of the holes,
observed that they are evidently formed by the animal,
and are lined with a smooth yellow substance which
it deposits on the stone; that in limestone rocks the
deposit is probably obtained from the stone itself by
means of a solvent, but that in granite it may be
derived from the lime held in solution in the sea-
water.

Mr. H. N. Moseley mentions that at St. Vincent,
Cape de Verde Islands, when the rock pools are
exposed by low tides, numbers of sea-urchins (Ecldno-
metra) may be seen burrowing in rounded cavities in
the rocks, which they had made both in the calcareous
sand-rock and the volcanic conglomerate.! In Brazil,
also, a species of Echinometra (Ecliinometra Michclint,
Dessor) is found living in holes, not only in the sand-
stone, but in the gneiss rocks, and in many places the
rock is fairly honeycombed by their nests. §

In Sicily there is a verse which compares the spines

* Forbes's « British Star-fishes,' p. 170.

+ Ibid. p. 154.

X 'A Naturalist ou the Challenger.'

§ 'Scientific result of Agas.-iz,' "Journey to Brazil," p. 36.

CIDARID.E. SEA-EGGS. 271

of the Sea-urchin to a hundred oars, with which it must
row, carrying its little invokers j after having cauo-ht
it, the Sicilian children scatter a little salt over it and
sing : —

11 Vdcami, Vocami, centu rimi
Vdcami, Vocami, centu rimi
(Row for me, row for me, hundred oars).

The Sea-urchin moves and the children are delighted.*
In Dalmatia, Echini are used as bait, when pounded,
in the basket traps called Nasse, and they are also
recommended as a care for diarrhoea.

Echinus esculentus, the real Oursin comestible, or
Chdtaigne, is found in the Mediterranean, and also on
the coast of Brittany, and I have seen specimens from
the roadstead of Brest. Mr. R. Jones (as quoted by the
Rev. J. Wood, in his ' Natural History/ p. 722) gives
a most amusing description of sea-egg fishing in the
Bay of Naples, saying, " 1 had not swam very far
from the beach before I found myself surrounded by
some fifty or sixty human heads, the bodies belonging
to which were invisible, and interspersed among
these perhaps an equal number of pairs of feet stick-
ing out of the water. As I approached the spot,
the entire scene became sufficiently ludicrous and
bewildering. Down went a head, up came a pair
of heels ; down went a pair of heels, up came a
head ; and as something like a hundred people were
all diligently practising the same manoeuvre, the
strange vicissitude from heels to head, and head to
heels, going on simultaneously, was rather a puzzling
spectacle. On inquiry, it proved that these divers
were engaged in fishing for Sea-urchins, which are

* 'Zoological Mythology,' vol. ii. p. 336.

272 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

especially valuable just before they deposit their eggs :
the roe, as the aggregate egg-masses are termed, being
large, and in as much repute as the ' soft roe ' of the
herring."

The Fuegian women dive to collect sea-eggs, both
in winter and summer; and large sea-eggs are found
in the Bay of Concepcion, which are highly esteemed
by the Chilians, and eaten raw.

The species of sea-egg, Echinometra 3fichelini, pre-
viously mentioned, has moderately long dark purple
spines, and is exceedingly abundant in places on the
coast of Brazil in the province of Espirito Santo, and
is used as food by the natives of the village of Guara-
pary.

Echinidce were also eaten by the ancients, and were
said to be tender and full of pleasant juice, but apt to
turn on the stomach ; but they were considered good
if eaten with sharp mead, parsley, and mint.*

Demetrius, the Scepsian, says that " a Lacedgemo-
nian, once being invited to a banquet, when some sea-
urchins were put before him on the table, took one,
not knowing the proper manner in which it should be
eaten, and not attending to those who were in the
company to see how they ate it; and so he put it in
his mouth with the skin or shell and all, and began to
crush the sea-urchin with his teeth ; and being ex-
ceedingly disgusted with what he was eating, and not
perceiving how to get rid of the taste, he said, ' Oh,
what nasty food ! I will not now be so effeminate as
to eject it, but I will never take it again/ "f

A friend of mine once tasted a sea-urchin raw, while

* Atbenseus, ' Deipn.' vol. i. bk. iii. p. 41.
f Idem. vol. i. bk. iii. c. 41. p. 152.

CIDARIDJS. — SEA-EGGS. 273

she was travelling in the south of Europe, as it was
highly recommended, and considered quite a delicate
morsel ; but she told me that it was very unpalatable,
and rather bitter, and she had not the courage to
swallow it, like the Lacedaemonian ; however, I have
eaten one, and did not dislike it.

In Corfu, in the villages by the sea, a species of
Echinus is a favourite dish, and allowed, with oysters,
to be eaten in Lent, except on the strict days. In
Greece it is considered as vegetable food.

At Marseilles, baskets are seen in the fish-market
filled with the beautiful green sea-ribbon, Zoster a
marina, on which are placed sea- eggs.* I noticed that
the upper portion of the shell was carefully cut off to
show the orange-coloured oval mass within, and the
contents of three or four are generally emptied into
one shell, as there is not much in one only. Sea- eggs
are usually brought to the market at Marseilles in
October.

There are four species of Echini eaten, viz. Echinus
melo {Voursin melon), in Corsica and Algeria; Echinus
lividus (Voursin livide), at Naples ; Echinus escidentus
(Voursin commun or chdtaign e) , in Provence; and
Echinus granulosus.

Echinus esculentus is called in Feroese Eyilkier.

They are usually eaten raw, like oysters, are cut into
four quarters, and the flesh eaten with a spoon. f

To Cook Echini. — Boil them as you would boil eggs,
and eat them with sippets of bread.

Generally considered in season in the autumn. The

* ' Reisse-Erinnerungen aus Spanien,' vou E. A. Rossmassler.
f ' La Vie et les Moeurs des Animaux,' par Louis Figuier.

T

274 EDIBLE BRITISH HOLLUSCA.

sea-egg becomes red like a crab when it is cooked,
and is said to resemble it in flavour.

The following are the Italian names for Echini — Rizzo
di mar, Castagne de mar, Tartuffoli, Melon de mar;
and, according to Mr. Faber, they are eaten in small
quantities at Trieste and Fiume, and very generally
by the Greek sailors, when in season.*

* 'The Fisheries of the Adriatic.'

275

LIST OF WORKS

REFERRED TO, OR CONSULTED, IN THE PREPARATION

OF THIS WORK.

' A Book for the Seaside.'

' A Thousand Notable Things, of sundrie sorts, whereof some
are wonderfull, some strange, some pleasant, divers neces-
sary," &c, <fec. At London, printed by J. Eoberts, for
Edward White, and are to be sold at the little North doore
of Paule's, at the signe of the Gunne. 1601.

1 A Winter Tour in Spain,' by the author of ' Dacia Singleton.'

Acton, Miss : ' Modern Cookery.'

Adams, Arthur: "Squid Fishing in Japan." 'Zoologist,'
for 1861.

Adams, Arthur, F.L.S., E.N. : * A Naturalist in Japan and
Manchuria.'

Addison, J. : ' Eemarks on Several Parts of Italy, in the
years 1701, 1702, 1703.'

Agassiz, Louis : ' Scientific Eesults of a Journey in Brazil,
and the Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil,' by
Ch. Fred. Hartt.

Alcock, Sir J. Eutherford: 'The Capital of the Tycoon.'

' All about Oysters.'

Ansted, Professor: 'The Ionian Islands in the year 1863.'

Ansted and Latham : ' The Channel Islands.'

1 Antiquarian Chronicle and Literary Advertiser,' June, 1882.

* Archseologia Cambrensis.'

1 Archaeological Association, Journal of the.' Vols. i. ii. iv.
xviii. and xx.

t2

276 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Arnold. R. Arthur: 'From the Levant to the Black Sea and

the Danube.' 2 vols.
' Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy.'
' Art Journal :' " The Pilgrims of the Middle Ages." By the

Rev. E. L. Cutts. Vol. for 1861.
Atlas Geographicus.' Vol. i.
'' Athenaeum/ July 20, 1850.
Athenseus : ' The Deipnosophists, or the Banquet of the

Learned.' Literally translated by C. D. Yonge, B.A.

Bohn's Classical Library. 3 vols.
Audot, L. E. : 'La Cuisiniere de la Campagne.'
Audot : ' Dictionnaire General de la Cuisine Francaise ?

Ancienne et Moderne.'
Audubon, John James : ' The Life and Adventures of the

Naturalist.' Edited by Robert Buchanan.
Aufrere, Anthony : ' Travels through various Provinces of

the Kingdom of Naples in 1789.' Translated by Charles

Ulysses.
Baines' 'Explorations in South- West Africa.'
Baird, W., M.D., F.L.S. : ' Cyclopaedia of the Natural

Sciences.'
Baker, Samuel White, M. A., F.R.G.S. : ' The Albert N'yanza,

Great Basin of the Nile.' 2 vols.
Ball, V., M.A. : 'Jungle Life in India, or the Journeys and

Journals of an Indian Geologist.'
Barrera, Madame de : ' Gems and Jewels.'
Bates, H. W. : ' Naturalist on the Amazon.' 2 vols.
Beau, M. : ' De l'Utilite de certains Mollusques Marins de la

Guadeloupe et de la Martinique.'
Beck man's ' History of Inventions.'
Beechey's 'Voyage to the Paciiic.' 2 parts.
Beltremieux, Edouard : ' Faune du Departement de la Cha-

rente-Inferieure.'
Bennet, Dr. J. II.: 'La Mediterranee, ia Riviere de Genes

et de Menton.'
Blackburn, Henry : ' Travelling in Spain in the Present

Day.'

LTST OF WORKS CONSULTED. 277

Blackwood's 'Edinburgh Magazine.' No. 561, July, 1862.
Blower, Ralph : ' A Rich Storehouse, or Treasurie of the

Diseased.' 1607.
Boate, Dr. : ' A Natural History of Ireland.' In three parts.
Bowles, W. L. : ' Poetical Works.' 2 vols.
Brand, John, M.A. : 'Popular Antiquities of Great Britain.'

3 vols. Bonn's Antiquarian Library.
'British Mollusca and their Shells.' By Messrs. Forbes and

Hanley. 4 vols.
' British Monachism.' By Fosbroke.
' British Topography.' 2 vols.
Britton, John, F.S.A., and E. W. Brayley: 'Topographical

and Historical Description of the County of Dorset.'
Brooks, W. K. : 'Development of the American Oyster.'

Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland.
Brookes, R. : 'The Art of Angling, Rock and Sea-fishing,

with the Natural History of River, Pond, and Sea fish.'

MDCCXL.
Brace's ' Travels.' 7 vols.
Buckland, A. W. : 'The World beyond the Esterelles.'

2 vols.
Burke's ' General Armorie.'
Busbecq, Ogier Ghiselin de : ' The Life and Letters of

Seigneur of Bousbecque, Knight, Imperial Ambassador.'

By Charles Thornton Forster, M.A., and F. H. Blackburne

Daniell, M.A. 2 vols.
Cailliaud, Frederic : ' Catalogue des Radiaires, des Annelides,

des Cirrhipedes, et des Mollusques marins, terrestres et

fluviatiles recueillis dans le departement de la Loire-

Inferieure.'
Camden's ' Britannia.'

Cantraine, F. : ' Malacologie Mediterraneene et littorale.'
Chenu, Dr. J. C. : ' Manuel de Conchyliologie.' 2 vols.
China : " Imperial Maritime Customs, III. Miscellaneous

Series, No. 11." 'Special Catalogue of the Chinese Collection

of Exhibits for the International Fisheries Exhibition,

London, 1883.'

278 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLTJSCA.

' Chronicos de los Eel. Descalzos de S. Francisco.' By Juan
Francisco de San Antonio, v 1738.

Colborne, Eobert : ' A Complete English Dispensatory,' &c-
1756.

Collingwool, Dr.: 'A Naturalist's Eambles in the China
Seas.'

Copley, Esther: 'Housekeeper's Guide.'

Coppinger, E. W., M.D. : ' Cruise of the Alert.'

' Cottage Gardener,' vol. i.

Cromwell's ' History of Colchester.' 2 vols.

Crowen, Mrs. : ' American Lady's Cookery Book.'

Cumming Gordon, C. F. : 'A Lady's Cruise in a French
Man-of-war.' 2 vols.

Damon, E., F.G.S. : "A collection of Eecent Shells discovered
among the ruins of Pompeii, and preserved in the Museo
Borbonico at Naples." ' Geological Magazine,' vol. iv.
July, 1867.

Daniel's ' Eural Sports.' 4 vols.

Debeaux, J. 0. : ' Essai sur la Eharmacie et la Matiere
Medicale des Chinois.'

Denison, Sir William: 'Varieties of Vice-Eegal Life.'

' Dictionary of Greek and Eoman Antiquities.' Edited by
Dr. W. Smith.

' Dictionary of Eractical Eeceipts.' By G. W. Francis.

Dorman, Eushton M. : 'The Origin of Primitive Super-
stitions.'

Earl, G. W. : " On the Shell Mounds of the Malay Eeninsula."
' Intellectual Observer.' Vol. i.

Ebrard, Dr.: 'Des Escargots, au point de vue de 1' Alimenta-
tion, de la Viticulture, et de l'Horticulture.'

Eden, L. S. : ' My Holiday in Austria.'

Ellis, W. : ' Polynesian Eesearches.'

Elwes : 'AY.S.W., a Voyage in that direction to the West
Indies.'

' English Cookery Book.'

' Enquire Within upon Everything.'

Evelyn's ' Memoirs.' Edited by W. Brey, Esq.

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. 279

' Every Day's Needs.' A collection of well-proven recipes,
furnished by the ladies of the Business Woman's Union,
Brooklyn, KT.

Faber, G. L. : ' The Fisheries of the Adriatic'

Fairbairn's ' Crests of Great Britain and Ireland.' 2 vols.

Fellowes, Sir Charles : ' Asia Minor.'

1 Field,' The.

Figuier, Louis : ■ La Vie et les Moeurs des Animaux, Zoo-
phytes, et Mollusques.'

Fischer, Dr. Paul : * Faune Conchyliologique Marine du
departement de la Gironde,' &c.

Florez : ' Medallas de Espana.'

Forbes, E., M.W.S., For. Sec.,B. S., &c: « A History of British
Star-fishes, and other animals of the class Echinodermata.'

Forbes, Edward : ' Malacologia Monensis.'

Forbes, James, F.B.S. : 'Oriental Memoirs.' 4 vols.

Francatelli's ' Cook's Guide.'

Fredol, Alfred : ' Le Monde de la Mer.'

Freer, Alice : ' The Antipodes and Bound the World.'

' French Family Cook.'

Fuller, Thomas : ' Pharmacopoeia Extemporanea.'

Galignani's ' Messenger.'

Gatty, Mrs.: 'Old Folks from Home.'

Gell, Sir W.: <Pompeiana.'

Gibbon's 'Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.'

Giles, Herbert A.: 'Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio.'
2 vols.

Gilmore, Parker, J. : ' The Gun, Rod, and Saddle.'

Gosse, Philip Henry : ' A Naturalist's Rambles on the
Devonshire Coast.'

Gosse, Philip Henry : ' A Year at the Seashore.'

Gosse, Philip Henry : ' A Manual of Marine Zoology for the
British Isles.' 2 vols.

Gosse, Philip Henry: 'The Aquarium.'

Goutfe, Jules : ' The Royal Cookery Book.'

Graells, M. de la P. : ' Exploracion eientiiica de las costas del
Ferrol.' 1 vol. Madrid, 1870.

280 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Gubernatis, Angelo de: 'Zoological Mythology, or the Legends
of Animals.' 2 vols.

Gwillim's ' Heraldry.'

Hall, Major Byng : ' The Queen's Messenger.'

Hampson, R. J. : ' Medii iEvi Kalendarium.'

Harding, Charles: ' Mcllusks, Mussels, and Whelks.'

Harland, Marion : ' Common Sense in the Household.'

Harper, John, F.R.S. : 'Glimpses of Ocean Life.'

Harrison, Mrs. Sarah, of Devonshire : ' The Housekeeper's
Pocket-book and Complete Family Cook.'

Harting, P. : ' Description de deux Cephalopodes Gigan-
tesques.'

Hartwig, Dr. G. : ' The Harmonies of Nature, or the Unity
of Creation.'

Harvey, W. H.: 'Seaside Book.'

Henderson, W. : ' Folklore of the Northern Counties of
England.'

Henclrie, Robert : ' Theophili, qui et Rugerus,' &c. An Essay
upon various Arts, &c. In 3 books.

Hidalgo, J. G. : ' Moluscos Marinos de Espana, Portugal y
las Baleares.'

Hill, Georgiana: 'Household Manuals,' "How to Cook
Fish," &c.

Holcroft's ' Travels of Count Stolberg.' 2 vols.

Holub, Dr. Emil: 'Seven Years in South Africa.' 2 vols.

Hone, William: ' Everyday Book.' 4 vols.

' Household Words.' Vol. iii. "My Pearl-fishing Expedi-
tion."

Hubrecht, Professor : ' Oyster Culture and Oyster Fisheries
in the Netherlands.' Papers on the Conferences held in
connection with the Great International Fisheries Exhibi-
tion, 1883.

Humphreys, H. Noel. : ' The Coin Collector's Manual.
2 vols. Bonn's Scientific Library.

Hutchinson, Thomas J. : ' Two Years in Peru.'

' Illustrated London News.'

' Intellectual Observer.' Vols. i. ii. iii. vii. and xi.

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. 281

' Indian Domestic Economy and Recipe Book.' By the

author of ' Manual of Gardening for Western India.'
Jeffreys, John Gwyn, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. : 'British Con-

chology.' 4 vols.
Jenks, James: 'The Complete Cook.'
Jesse, J. Heneage : ' London ; its Celebrated Characters and

Remarkable Places.' 3 vols.
Johnson, Keith : " Notes of a Trip from Zanzibar to Usarn-

bara," &c, 1879. 'Proceedings of the Royal Geographical

Society.' Vol. i., No. 9, Sept. 1879.
Jones, T. R. : ' The Aquarium Naturalist.'
' Journal of the Society of Arts.' August 5th and 12th, 1881,

and August 24th, 1883.
Keogh, John : ' Zoologia Medicinalis Hibernica, or a Treatise

of Birds, Beasts, Fishes, Reptiles, or Insects,' &c. 1739.
King, Rev. C. W. : 'Precious Stones, Gems, and Precious

Metals.'
Kirby's "History of Animals," &c. ' Bridgewater Treatise.'
Kirby's ' Wonderful Museum.' Vol. ii.
Knight's ' Encyclopaedia.'
Knox, John : ' History of the Reformation of Religion in

Scotland.'
'Lady's Companion.' Containing upwards of three thousand dif-
ferent receipts, &c. Printed for J. Hodge, on London Bridge,

and R. Baldwin, at the ' Rose,' Paternoster Row. 1753.
' Land and "Water.'
Landt, Rev. G. : ' The Feroe Isles.'
Lane's ' Modern Egyptians.'
Lankester, Dr. : ' Of the Uses of Animals, in Relation to the

Industry of Man.' 2nd course.
Lambert, C. and S. : ' The Voyage of the Wanderer.'
Leland's ' Collectanea.' 6 vols.
Lord, John Keast : 'The Naturalist in British Columbia.

Vols. i. and ii.
Lord, W. B.: 'Sea-fish, and How to Catch Them.'
Lukis, F. C. : " Cromlech du Tus." ' Journal of the British

Archaeological Association.' Vol. i. 1845-6.
Lukis, F. C. : " On the Sepulchral Character of Cromlechs in

282 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

the Channel Islands." 'Journal of the British Archaeo-
logical Association.' Vol. iv. 1848-9.

Lyell, Sir Charles: 'Antiquity of Man.'

Mace, M. J. A.: ' Essai d'un catalogue des Mollusques marins,
terrestres, et fluviatiles vivant dans les environs de Cher-
bourg et de Valognes.'

Macgillivray, W. : ' Conchologist's Text Book.' Corrected
and enlarged by.

'Macmillan's Magazine.' No. 36, October, 1862. "The
Fisher Folk of the Scottish East Coast."

M'Culloch's ' Commercial Dictionary.'

' Magazine of Domestic Economy.'

' Maitre Jacques.'

" Man Cook, A." 'Field,' February 20, 1864.

Marshall, W. G., M. A. : ' Through America, or Nine Months
in the United States.' 1881.

Mason, Mrs. Charlotte: 'The Lady's Assistant.' 1775.

'Meddygon Myddvai ' (Welsh MSS. Society, 1859).

Mitchell, Samuel L : "Facts and Observations intended to
illustrate the Natural and Economical History of the
Eatable Clam of New York," &c. Published in American
'Journal of Science and Arts.' 1825.

Mitford, A. B. : ' Tales of Old Japan.'

Montfaucon, ' Antiquity Explained,' &c. Translated into
English by David Humphreys, M.A. 4 vols.

Moquin-Tandon, A. : ' Histoire Naturelle des Mollusques
terrestres et fluviatiles de France.' 3 vols.

' Morning Post,' 1868.

Moseley, H. N., M.A., F.K.S. : ' Notes of a Naturalist on the
Challenger.'

Moule, Thomas : ' Heraldry of Fish.'

Murray's ' Handbooks to Kent and Sussex, and to Devon and
Cornwall.'

Murray's ' Modern Domestic Cookery.'

'Naturalist's Circular.' No. 17, October, 1867.

' Natural History Review ; a quarterly journal of Biological
Science.' No. x., April, 1863.

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. 283

Neumann's ' Chemistry. '

Nichols' 'Forty Years in America.' 2 vols.

Nicolas, Sir N. H. : ' History of the Royal Navy.' 2 vols.

'Nineteenth Century,' Sept., 1883. "Memories of Ischia,"

by Dr. W. H. Russell.
Nordenskjold, Adolf. Erick. : ' The Arctic Voyages of 1858

to 1879.'
1 Normandy, Life in.' 2 vols.
'Notes and Memoranda,' "Gigantic Cephalopod." Vol. i.,

'Intellectual Observer.'
Nott, John, late Cook to his Grace the Duke of Bolton, 1733.

'The Cooks' and Confectioners' Dictionary.'
' Novara, Voyage of the.' 2 vols.
' O'Brien's Adventures during the late War.' 2 vols.
' Old Cookery Book.'
1 Oyster, the ; Where, How, and When to Find, Breed, Cook,

and Eat it.'
Ozenne, Charles M. L. : ' These pour le Doctorat en Medecine
presentee et soutenue le 20 Aout, 1858.' "Essai sur les
Mollusques considered comme aliments, medicaments et
poisons."
Palliser, Mrs. Bury : ' Brittany and its Bye-ways.'
Parker's 'Glossary of Heraldry.' Oxford.
Patterson's 'Introduction to Zoology.'
Perrott, A. M. : ' Collection Historique de la Chevallerie.'
Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph : ' A History of Egyptian Mam-
mies.'
Phipson, Dr. T. L. : 'The Utilization of Minute Life.'
Phipson, Dr. T. L. : ' Phosphorescence.'
Picart, Bernard : ' Ceremonies and Religious Customs of the

Various Nations.' 4 vols.
Pike, Nicholas : ' Sub-tropical Rambles in the Land of the

Aphanapteryx,' &c.
Pliny's ' Natural History.' Translated by the late John
Bostock, M.D., F.R.S., and H. P. Riley, Esq., B. A. 6 vols.
Bonn's Classical Library.
Poli : ' Testacea L^triusque Siciline. ' 1795.

284 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Pontoppidan, Erich: 'The Natural History of Norway. '
'Poor Eobin,' 1719. "An Almanack after a new Fashion.

Wherein the Eeader may see (if he be not blind) many

remarkable Things worthy of his Choicest Observations, &c.

Written by Poor Eobin, Knight of the Burnt Island, a

well-wilier to the Mathematicks."
Potter, John : ' Archasologia Grseca, or the Antiquities of

Greece.' 2 vols.
Prescott's 'History of Ferdinand and Isabella.'
Quatrefages, A. de : ' Eambles of a Naturalist on the Coasts

of France, Spain, and Sicily.' 2 vols.
' Queen's Delight, or the Art of Preserving, Conserving, and

Candying, as also a right knowledge of Making Perfumes

and Distilling the most Excellent Waters.' Printed by E.

Wood, for Nath. Brooke at the Angel in Cornhill. 1638.
Quincy, Dr. John: * Pharmacopoeia Officinalis.'
Eae, Edward, F.E.G.S. : < The White Sea Peninsula.'
Baffald, Elizabeth : ' The Experienced English Housekeeper.'
Eamsay, Mrs. : 'A Summer in Spain.'
Eawlinson's 'Translation of the History of Herodotus.'

4 vols.
Eebus: ' Official Introduction to Bahamas Fisheries.'
Eeeve, Lovell : ' British Land and Freshwater Mollusks.'
Eeid, Hartlaw: 'Practical Cookery.'
Eein, J. J.: 'Japan.'
' Eeport from the Select Committee on Oyster Fisheries.'

1876.
' Eeport on Crab and Lobster Fisheries of England and

Wales.' By Frank Buckland and Spencer Stanhope, Esqrs.

1877.
'Eeport on the Principal Oyster Fisheries of France,' &a

By Major Hayes. 1877.
' Eeport on Oyster Culture in France.' T. H. Farrer. 1883.
' Eevue des Deux Mondes.' Tome Soixante-Quinzieme.
15 Juin, 1868, " L' Alimentation de Paris, II.," "Les
Halles Centrales;" and 1 Janvier, 1884, "La Peche et la
Pisciculture en France."

LTST OF WORKS CONSULTED. 285

Roberts, Mary : ' Popular Mollusca.'

Robinson, J. C. : ' Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of

Works of Art, &c., on Loan at the South Kensington

Museum.' 1862.
Robinson's ' Essay towards a Natural History of Westmore-
land and Cumberland.' 1709.
Rock, Dr. : ' Church of the Fathers.'
Rosenhauer, W. von: 'Die Thiere Andalusiens.'
Rossmassler: ' Reise-Erinnerungen aus Spanien.' 2 parts.
Salmon, William, M.D. : 'The Family Dictionary.' 1710.
Salmon, William, M.D. : * The Complete English Physician,

or the Druggist's Shop opened by W. Salmon, Professor

of Physick, near Holbourn Bridge, London.' 1693.
Schilling, Samuel : ' Grundriss der Naturgeschicte des Thier-

Pflanzen-und Mineralreich.'
Schliemann, Dr. Henry : ' Troja.'
Scott, Sir Walter : ' Marmion.'

' Semaine Francaise, la.' No. 60. Janvier 21, 1880.
'Shipwrecked Mariner:' "Visits to the Seacoasts." Vol.

xii. 1865.
Shirley, Evelyn Philip : ' Noble and Gentle Men of England.'
Shore, Henry Noel, R.N. : * Flight of the Lapwing.'
Sike, Wirt: 'Rambles and Studies in Old South Wales.'

1881.
Simmonds, Peter Lund, F.R.G.S.: 'Curiosities of Food.'
Smith, C. Roach: "Notes on some Leaden Coffins discovered

at Colchester." 'Journal of the British Archaeological

Association,' 1846-7. Vol. ii.
Smith, C. Roach: "On Pilgrims' Signs and Leaden Tokens."

'Journal of the British Archaeological Association,' 1845-6.

Vol. i.
Smyth, Rear Admiral W. Henry: 'The Mediterranean.'
Sowerby's 'Popular British Conchology.'
Sowerby's ' Conchological Manual.'
Soyer, A. : 'Gastronomic Regenerator.'
Soyer's ' Menagere.'
Sporting Gazette,' December 24, 1864.

286 EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

1 Staffordshire Advertiser,' June 6, 1868.

Stevens, Edward: 'Flint Chips.'

Stokes, William, M.D.: 'The Life and Labours in Art and
Archaeology of George Petrie, L.L.D.,' &c.

Street's ' Gothic Architecture in Spain.'

Strickland, Agnes: 'The Queens of Scotland, and English
Princesses.' Vol. vi.

Stuart, Yilliers: 'Nile Gleanings.'

Swainson, W., F.R.S.: 'A Treatise on Malacology, or the
Natural Classification of Shells and Shellfish.'

•Tabella Cibaria: The Bill of Fare, a Latin Poem. Impli-
citly translated,' &c.

Taylor's ' History of Mankind.'

Tennent, Sir J. E.: 'Natural History of Ceylon.'

The ' Times,' passim.

Timmins, Samuel: 'The Eesources, Products, and Indus-
trial History of Birmingham, and the Midland Hardware
Districts.'

Tissot, Victor: ' Vienne et la vie Viennoise.'

' Transactions of the American Ethnological Society.'

Tristram, Dr. H. B.: 'The Land of Israel.'

Troschel, Dr. Eranz Hermann: 'Handbuch der Zoologie.'

Tupper, Martin: 'Proverbial Philosophy.'

Turner, Sharon: 'History of the Anglo-Saxons.'

Venables, Rev. Edward, M.A. : ' Guide to the Isle of Wight.'

Verrill, A. E. : ' The Cephalopods of the North-eastern Coast
of America.' 2 parts.

Vincent, Frank, Junr. : ' Norsk, Lapp, and Finn.'

'Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle.' 3 vols, and
Appendix. King, Fitzroy, and Darwin.

Walsh, J. H. : 'English Cookery Book.'

Warner, The Rev. Richard, of Sway, near Lymington, Hants:
' Antiquitates Culinariae, or Curious Tracts relating to the
Culinary Affairs of the Old English,' &c.

' Wesley an-Methodist Magazine.' Fifth series. Vol. xi. 1865.

Weetropp, Hodder W. : ' Manual of Precious Stones, and
Antique Gems.'

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED. 287

White's * Popular British Crustacea.'

Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner: 'Dalmatia and Montenegro.'

Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner : " British remains on Dartmoor."

'Journal of the British Archaeological Association.' Vol.

xviii. 1862.
Williams, Kev. Charles : ' Silvershell, or the Adventures of

an Oyster.'
Williams's ' Figi and the Figians.'
Wilson, Dr. Daniel : ' Prehistoric Man.'
Wilson, Dr. Daniel: 'Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.'

2 vols.
Wingfield, The Hon. Lewis : ' Under the Palms in Algeria

and Tunis.' 2 vols.
Wood, Edward : ■ Curiosities of Clocks and Watches from

the Earliest Times.'
Wood, Eev. J. : ' Natural History.' 3 vols. (Fishes.)
Woodward's ' Manual of the Mollusca.'
Woodward, Henry, F.G.S., F.Z.S. : " Economic Uses of Shells

and their Inhabitants." ' Intellectual Observer.' Vol. xi.
Wordsworth's ' Poems.'

Wright, Thomas : ' The Celt, the Koman, and the Saxon.'
Wright, J. S. : ' Jewellery and Gilt Toys.'
Yule, Colonel Henry : ' The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the

Venetian, concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the

East ; newly translated and edited. 2 vols.
■ Zoologist, The.' 1860, 1861, and 1865.

ERRATA.

Page 1, line 5, for Pholas Dactylus, read Pholas dactylus.
6, line 15, for masilius, read Marsilius.
11, note, for moluses, read molluscB.
13, line 28, for Solen Siliqua, read Solen siliqua.
18, line 12, for Psammobia Vespertina, read Psammobia

VESPERTINA.

22, line 3, for Mactra Solida, read Mactra solida.
25, line 16, for Tapes Pullastra, read Tapes pullastra.
31, line 11, for Henmare read Kenmare.
33, line 17, for Venus Verrucosa, read Venus verrucosa.

33, line 23, for Venus Gallina, read Venus gallina.

34, line 2, for Venus Mercenaria, read Venus mercenaria.
34, line 21, for Venus Mercenaria, read Venus mercenaria.
55, line 22, for Cardium Rusticum, or Tuberculatum, read

Cardium rusticum, or tuberculatum.
75, note, for Odon Desbeaux, read Odon Debeaux.
102, note, for J. (). Desbeaux, read J. 0. Debeaux.
120, line 26, for Pecten Opercularis, read Pecten operculars.
172, line 18, for Patella Vulgata, read Patella vulgata.
189, line 29, for Trochus crassas, read Trochus crassus.

INDEX.

Abbey seal, with figure of St. James,
or St. Jacques, 108.

Acclimatization of Ostrea Virginica
on the French coast, 143.

Acclimatization of Venus mercenaria
in St. George's Channel, 34.

Achatina, power of, to ward off evil,
198.

Action for trespass, 64.

Admirable and most famous snail-
water, 215.

African snails mentioned by Pliny,
223.

Aillado, sauce for snails, 244.

Allouret, or bird net, 59.

Almeixa-bravas, or Piddock, 4.

Almejas, or Tapes, 27.

Almejas al naturel, 29.

Almejas blancas, 29.

Almejas cocidas, 29.

Almejas guisadas, 29.

Alasmodontae, used for artificial pro-
duction of pearls, 75.

Ambergris, genuineness of, 252.

American box stew, 157.

American Clam acclimatized on the
French coast, 34.

American oyster, Ostrea Virginiana,
143.

Amethystine purple produced from
Murex trun^ulus, 205.

Amroth. submerged forest, 4.

Ancient Greeks used shells as trum-
pets, 196.

Andorrihas, 123.

Anecdote of Dr. Black and Dr.
Hutton, 231.

Anglo- Dutch oysters, 137.

Anglo -Portuguese oysters, 141.

Anglo-Saxon dialogues, 127.

Animals adorned with pearls, 92.
Anklets and bracelets of chank-

shells, 195.
Annual Colchester oyster feast, 128.
Anodonta cygnea eaten in Leitrim,

74.
Anodonta edulis, 74.
Anodontae and Unionidaa used for

bait, 74.
Another soueraigne Medecine for a

Web in the eye, 212.
Antient cryes of London, 136.
Apicius discovers the art of pre-
serving oysters fresh, 125.
Aplysia hybrida emits a purple

liquid, 206.
Aplysia, large, common at the Cape

de Verd Islands, 206.
Aporrhais pes-pelecani, 189.
Area barbata, 85.
Area Noe, 85.
Arceddu giarnusu, 20.
Architeuthis, 251
Architeuthis princeps. 253.
Aristotle and cartilaginous fish, 64.
Aristotle's Lantern, 269.
Aristotle's description of razor-fish,

14.
Arms of Buckenham Priory, 108
Articles made of Pinna silk, 88.
Artificial ovster-beds kno-\n in

China, 125.
Artificial ovster-beds of Great Bri-
tain, 127.
Ai tificial oyster-beds of the Romans,

125.
Ashes of calcined shells of S3pia for

extracting weapons from wounds,

246.
Aspergille, or Hjlix aspersa, 226.
U

290

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Athengeus and the Ephesian mus-
sels, 69.

Athenaeus recommends roasted So-
lens, 15.

Athenyeus recommends Tellinidye,
19.

Aulo of the Romans, 14.

Auris marina, 180.

Australian freshwater mussel, 75.

Aviculida?, 85.

Aviueiras, 104.

Awabee, or Awabi, 65.

Bagava, 93.

Bags and pockets for musBels made

of old nets, 60.
Bajaina, name for Helix aspersa at

Grasse, 226.
Bamboo oysters, 147.
Banarut, or Helix aspersa, 226.
Banded snails, Helix pisana, 229.
Baptismal shells mentioned in a list

of Church ornaments, in the

fifteenth century, 119.
Baptismal shells usually of silver-
gilt, 119.
Baptism, in private, a wooden shell

used, 119. .
Barretets, 178.
Barrois, escargotiere in, 224.
Beads of Strombus gigas, 176.
Beira, or great scallop, 104.
Belief in the power of the bones of

St. James to work miracles, nearly

died out, 116.
Berberichos, 42.
Berdigones, 42.
Bernicle, 178.
Bernigan, 1 78.
Bibarazza, 83.
Bibaronde di mare. 40.
Bibaron colorito, 22.
Bigoi-neau, 188.
Bdlingsgate market supplied with

mussels from Holland, 62.
Birds feed on snails, 222.
Bishop Mayhew, 113.
Bisse del legno, 4.
Black cockle, 41.
Blackfish, or Tintenfisch, 246.
Buhrmuschel, or Steinbohrer, 4.
Bois, 206.

Bosina, 196.

Bouchots, or artificial mussel-beds,

60.
Bouyer's huge cuttle-fish, 255-.
Bovolo, 229.

Boyl-yas, or native sorcerer, 76.
Breeding pearls, 47.
Brennick, 178.
Bridge at Bideford, 64.
British localities for Solen margi-

natus, 14.
British oyster valued by the Romans,

125.
British specimen of Helix aperta,

227.
Bruvane, 42.
Bucarde sourdon, 42.
Buccin onde', 191.
Buccinum used for bait for long-line

fishing, 193.
Buccinum glaciale, 208.
Buccinum undatum, 191.
Buccinum, or whelk, carved on font

in St. Clement's Church, Sand-
wich, 208.
Bucios, 206.

Buckies, or whelks, 193.
Burran Bank oysters, 134.
Burton Bindons, oysters called,

134.
Butterfish, price of, 26.
Butterfish, or Purr, 26.
Byssus of mussels, 64.

Cabras, 24.

Caesar, and the pearls of Great

Britain, 73.
Caesar, Julius, prohibits unmarried

women to wear pearls and purple,

92.
Caesar, Julius, first wore the toga

entirely of purple, 205.
Cagouille, 226.
Calmar, 262.
Calamars, 262.

Calamares at Palma, Majorca, 267,
Calamares eaten in Spain, 267.
Calamaretto, or Seppieta, 263.
Calcined mussel-shells make strong

lime, 65.
Camadia, 31.
Camadia di luna, 33.

INDEX.

291

Canestrelli di mare, orPecten varius,

123.
Cannulicchiu stortu, 17.
Caparozzolo, 26.
Capa tabacchina, 17.
Capelings used as bait for cod-
fishing, 69.
Caperlongers, 86.
Cappa lunga, 86.
Cappa di San Giacomo, 104.
Cappa Santa, 104.
Cappa tonda, 58.
Caracola, 232.
Caracola del kuerta, 232.
Caracola del mar. 232.
Caracola del rio, 232.
Caracoleros, 232.
Caracoles, 206.
Caracoles con Perejil, 242.
Caragoou, 226.
Caraguolo, 226.
Caravelas, 17.
Cardiadae, 41.
Cardium aculeatum found on the

Devonshire coast, 57.
Cardium edule, 41.
Cardium rusticum, 55.
Cardium rusticum, or tuberculatum,

found at Paignton and Dawlish, 56.
Cardium rusticum, its leaping

powers, 56.
Caricoles franciscanos, 189.
Carlingford oysters, 133.
Carneros, 31.
Carneiroe, 42

Cascaras, or Mactra glauca, 23.
Casseron, 245.
Cassis flammea, idol in, 199.
Cassis Madagascariensis, or " Queen"

conch-shell, 199
Castagne de mar, 274.
Castafiuelas, 246.
Cathedral of Panama, the steeples

faced with pearl-oyster shells,

184.
Catherine de Medicis, 95.
Cats made of the shells of Helix

aspersa, 238.
Cayeu, 61.

Cawdel of Muskels, 76.
Cephalopoda, 250.
Cephalopoda, large, in Japan, 255.

Cephalopoda large, at Bermuda, 255.
Cephalopoda, large, caught on a

voyage to Ceylon, 255.
Ceylon pearl-fishery suffered from

skate, 98.
Ceylon pearl-fisheries in 1881, 98.
Chama a cuore, 40.
Chank fishery, 196.
Chank shell used by the Buddhists,

195.
Chank shells exported to India from

Ceylon, 195.
Chank shells reversed, prized by the

Chinese, 196.
Chaplet of cockles, 44.
Charron, 59.
Chataigne, 271.
Chatrou, 251.

Cheney Rock oyster fisheries, 130.
Chilian method of cooking shell- fish,

84.
Chinese clam dredger, 11.
Chinese dinner, 190.
Chinese remedy for smallpox, 102.
Chinese name for " Mya arenaria,"

11.
Chinese names for Solens, 17.
Chirlas, 20.
Chocos, 246.
Christening of the child of Lady

Cicile,wife of the Erie of Friesland,

183.
Cidaridse, 268.
Cimjue-cento ornaments, 94.
Claires, 138.
Clams acclimatized on the French

coast, 34.
Clam chowder, 38.
Clams strung like dried apples and

smoked for winter use, 25.
Clam soup, 12.
C am soup, 35.
Clams, soup of hard, 35.
Clams, to boil hard, 35.
Clams, to fry hard, 36.
Clams, omelet of hard, 36.
Clams, to boil soft, 12.
Clams, fishing for soft, 10.
Clams, to fry soft, 13.
Clams, stewed soft, 13.
Clams, price of soft, ll.
Clams, pickled, 37.

U JL

292

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Clam fritters, 38.

Clam scalloped, 38.

Clam pot pie, 3G.

Clams in Bay of San Francisco, 11.

Cleopatra and the pearl, 90.

Clodius iEsopus gives pearls to his

guests to swallow, 91.
Closheens, 123.

Clovisse, price of, at Bordeaux, 27.
Clumps, or horse-shoes, 21.
Cocciola, 58.
Cocciola zigga, 40.
Cochlea, 48.
Cochlear, cochleare, or cochlearium,

48.
Cockenzie fishermen, 135.
Cockille, meaning oyster, 46.
" Cockle" applied to any shell, 46.
Cockle, 41.
Cockle brillion, 8.
Cockles boiled in milk, 42.
Cockle or escallop, 115.
Cockles fried, 55.
Cockle-gardens, 42.
Cockle-gatherers' dress, 43.
Cockles, mussels, and oysters, on the

sites of Roman stations, 51.
Cockle pie, 54.
Cockle porridge, 53.
Cockle, red-nose, found at Paignton,

56.
Cockle, red-nose, cooked Paignton

method, 57.
Cockles sent to London from Gower,

43.
Cockles at Seville. 55.
Cockle-shell figured on coins, 45.
Cockle-shells prized by the Da-

maras, 43.
Cockle-shells in heraldry, 45.
Cockle-shells used as leads on fish-
ing-nets, 44.
Cockle-shell collecters for oyster

cultch, 44.
Cockles said to yield a dye, 48.
Cockle sauce, 52.
Cockles scalloped, 53.
Cockled snails, 47.
Cockle soup. 57.
Cockle soup, Francatelli's, 52.
Cockle sou}', to make, 52.
Cockles stewed in oil at Madrid, 58.

Cockles to stew, 54.
Cockles to stew. Gower recipe, 54.
Cockle-wives. at Penclawdd, 43.
Co3ur-de-bo3uf, or heart-shell, 40.
Cog, variously written, viz., kogge,

kogh, &c, 51.
Cogs, vessels called, 51.
Colchester and its oysters, 128.
Cold weather injurious to the spat

of oysters, 128.
Coliroacon, or Helix aspersa, 226.
Colourist's shells, 65.
Composition of oysters, 146.
Conca niura, or Solen, 17.
Conch shells from the Bahamas for

making cameos, 199.
Conch shells used for frightening

birds, 194.
Conch shells perforated used as

trumpets in New Guinea, 196.
Concha di San Dialogo, 104.
Conchas, 33.
Conchelos, 178.
Conchyliated colour comprehended

various shades of purple, 203.
Consumption of the vine snails in

Paris, 229.
Consumption of oysters in America,

144.
Consumption of oysters in London,

135.
Consumption of oysters in Paris,

140.
Contar, 226.
Copiza, 172.
Coque, 42.

Coquilles de St. Jacques, 104.
Cormaillot or perceur, 128.
Corn blanc. 206.
Cornet, or Corniche, 262.
Cornias, 206.

Corvins or periwinkles, 187.
Cotton wool injurious to pearls 47.
Coutoye, 17.
Cowrie-shells the native money of

New Britain, 106.
Cozza negra, 59.
Cozza di San Giacomo, 104.
Cozza di Tarento, 59.
Crab placed amongst the constel-
lations 2o6.
Crab found in Ostrea Virginica, 87.

INDEX.

293

Cram, the, 32.

Crogans, Cornish name for simpelet-
shells, 178.

Cromlech, term, 175.

Cromlech du Tus, 175.

Croques, 42.

Crotalia, or castauet pendants, ear-
rings so called, 90.

Cucas, 178.

Cuckoo-shells, 194.

Cullis of mussels, 84.

Cultivation of oysters on the
western coast of France, 137.

Cup made of staves of turbo-shells,
184.

Cups and dishes of pilgrims, 107.

Curried oyster atlets, 156.

Curried oysters, 156.

Cuttle-fish, or Scuttle, 245.

Cuttle-fish, description of, 245.

Cuttle bones, 245.

Cuttle bones brought to Liverpool,
245.

Cuttles, to cook, 265.

Cuttles, to cook, Mont St. Michel
recipe, 265.

Cuttles on the Sussex coast, 245.

Cuttle drowns a Sardinian Captain,
250.

Cuttle attacks a young Italian, 249.

Cuttle-fish a sacred emblem, 258.

Cuttle-fish as bait, 248.

Cuttle-fish eaten by the modern
Greeks, 247.

Cuttle-fish taken on the fishing
lines, 245.

Cuttle-fish of large size in Japan
and at Bermuda, 255.

Cuttle-fish food of whales, 252.

Cuttle-fish, remains of fossil, 252.

Cuttle-fish, Italian recipe for cook-
ing, 266.

Cuttle-fish, Jersey method of cook-
ing, 266.

Cuttles, Spanish method of stewing,
267.

Cuttles, or Scuttle, Weymouth re-
cipe for cooking, 266.

Cuttles sold at Yarmouth for eating,
245.

Cyprina Islandica, called the clam
in the Shetland Isles, 104.

Cyprinidae, 39.

Cytherea Arabica, 39.

Cytherea Chione, or Venus Chione,

31.
Cytherea Chione, specimens from

Plymouth, 32.
Cytherea petechialis eaten at Hong

Kong, 39.

Dail, gite, or pitau, 4.

Danes in the eighteenth century eat
snails, 225.

Danish Kjokkenmoddings, 50.

Danish Kjokkenmoddings, oysters
in, 151.

Dartmouth oysters, 131.

Datil de mar, 85.

Datil del Mar, 4.

Dattolo di mar, 85.

Dattolo di pietra, 85.

Decoction of snails against con-
sumptions (Decoctum Antiphthi-
sicum), 213.

Demoiselles, 228.

Dentalium found in tumuli in
America. 176.

Dewarra, 106.

Diampa, 178.

Dijon way of cooking snails, 243.

Dipsa plicatus used for the pro-
duction of artificial pearls. 75.

Dipsa plicatus valves used for
weighing rice, 75.

Discovery of the ashes of St. James
of Compostella, 112.

Distorted and deformed pearl-mussel
shells often contain pearls, 72.

Dog of Tyrian nymph, 202.

Dolabella Rumphi yields a dye,
206.

Donax denticulata, 20.

Donax denticulata, Martinique me-
thod of cooking, 20.

Donax eaten on the French coast,
20.

Donax cooked with rice at Malaga,
20.

Donax called cozzola in Sicily, 20.

Donax fishing at Viareggio, 19.

Donax and Psammobia used for
making sauces, instead of cockles,
19.

294

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Donax trnnculus sold in the market

at Xaples, 19.
Door-nails at Toledo, 116.
Dredgers of Whitstable, 129.
Dreissena polyrnorpha, 74.
Dress of Anne of Cleves, 94.
Ducks fed on snails, 234.
Duke of Bedford, arms of the, 107.
Dutch oysters, 159.

Ear-shells, Haliotis tuberculata, 179.

Ear-shells, used in Guernsey to
frighten birds from the corn,
. 181.

Ear of Venus, 180.

Echinidae eaten by the ancients,
272.

Echini, to cook, 273.

Echini best in autumn, 273.

Echini as a cure in medicine, 271.

Echini used as bait in Daluiatia,
271.

Echini eaten at Corfu, 273.

Echini eaten raw, like oysters, 273.

Echini move by means of their
spines. 269.

Echini foretell storms, 268.

Echinometra in holes in calcareous
sand-rock, and other volcanic con-
glomerate, 270.

Echinometra in holes in gneiss rocks,
270.

Echinometra Michelini eaten in
Brazil, 272.

Echinus considered as vegetable
food, 273.

Echinus esculentus, 271.

Echinus esculentus the real oursin
comestible, 271.

Echinus granulosus, 273.

Echinus in heraldry, 269.

Echinus livid us, or purple egg-
urchin, eaten on the west coast of
Ireland, 269.

Echinus lividus eaten at Naples, 273.

Echinus melo, 273.

Echinus sphaera, 2<>8.

Echinus sphaora, shells of, 269.

Eeast-ghol-virragh, 14.

Eeast-yn-vraain-olley, 246.

Eider duck and Buccinum, 208.

Eledone cirrhosus, 218.

Eledone moschatus eaten in Italy,
267.

Elenchi, long-shaped pearls, 90.
Enemies of the oyster, 127.
Enthronization feast of William

Warham, 207.
Escallop in heraldry, borne not only

as a pilgrim's badge, 109.
Escallop shell, crest of Bower and

Bullingham, 108.
Escargotieres, or snail gardens, 225.
Escargots, 225.
Escourgol, 226.
Escupiiias bestias, 23.
Escupiiias de gallet, 42.
Escupiiias grabadas, 31.
Escupifia lliza, 27.
Escupiiia Maltesa, 83.
Experiments by M. Cuzent on green

oysters, 140.
Export of snails from Saintonge and

Aunis, 227.
Extracting copper from oysters, 140.
Extravagance in jewellery from the

12th to 16th centuries, 93.
Eyilkier, 273.

Falmouth oysters sent to Marennes,

139.
Famine of 1816 and 1817, 227.
Fasolara, 33.
Fasting food, 246.
Fava, 23.

Figian and pearl-oyster shells, 185.
Fishing for mussels in Bay of Con-

cepcion, 66.
Fishing for donax and mactridae at

Viare^gio, 19.
Flie, 178.
Flitters, 174.
Fog-horn made of a species of Fusns,

207.
Folado, 4.
Folpo da risi, 267.
Foreign pearls, 72.
Fortunes predicted by snails, 235.
Fountain of shells, 117.
French mussel-breaders, 61.
French names for limpets, 178.
French names for scallops, 101.
Fried oysters another way, 161.
Frills, or Queens, 122.

INDEX.

295

Fuegrian women dive for sea-eggs,

272.
Fusus antiquus, red or almond

whelk, 207.
Fusus antiquus sold in London

under the name of whelk, 193.
Fusus antiquus, white variety, 207.

Gambling by means of snail races,

236.
Gaper, or mya, 8.
Garden snail, Helix aspersa, 209.
Gathering cry of pilgrims, 1 13.
Gibiones, 262.
Glams, 24.

Glow-worm, lines on a, 5.
Gofiehe, or scallop, 104.
Goggle, or whelk, 46.
Golondrinas, 123.
Gongola, or mactra, 22.
Googawns, 194.
Gower, a Flemish colony, 43.
Gower people live on cockles, 43.
Gower recipe for oyster-soup, 152.
Grand'-pelerine, 104.
Great drought in Ireland in 1792 or

1793, 68.
Gredas, 31.
Green-bearded oysters from the

river Crouch, 129.
Green ovsters in France at Maren-

nes, 138.
Grilled ovsters, 161.
Grosille, 104.

Guisado de Caracoles, 242.
Guitzu, 24.
Guitzu-petits. 21.
Gurriaiios y verigiietos, 31.
Gwean, guihan, or periwinkle, 187.

Habits of snails studied by the

ancients, 239.
Haliotidse, 179.
Haliotidae brought to Birmingham,

181.
Haliotidae eaten by the Japanese,

181.
Haliotis gigantea eaten by the Cali-

fornian Indians, 181.
Haliotis gigantea called "Awabi,"

181.
Haliotis Iris, or mutton-fish, 181.

Haliotis tuberculata, 179.

Haliotis supertexta called " Toko-

bushi," 181.
Hardships of pearl divers, 101.
Helices vigneronnes, method of

cooking, 243.
Helicidas in the markets in Murcia

and Valencia. 232.
HeliGidae as Lenten fare, 225.
Helix aperta, 227.
Helix arbustorum, 222.
Helix aspersa, garden snails, 209.
Helix aspersa, French names for,

226.
Helix aspersa used in medecine,

211.
Helix hortensis, 228.
Helix ianthina, 202.
Helix ianthina found on the coast

about Tyre and Bey root, 202.
Helix lactea, 233.
Helix lactea eaten in France and

Spain, 233.
Helix lactea found in Corsica, 233.
Helix nemoralis, wood-snails, 210.
Helix nemoralis in Danish kjokken-

moddings, 211.
Helix nemoralis eaten at Toulouse,

223.
Helix Pisana, the banded snail, 210.
Helix Pisana, where found in Great

Britain, 229.
Helix pomatia, vine snail, 209.
Helix pomatia, British localities for,

210.
Helix pomatia of large size in Savoy,

223.
Helix pomatia, white variety and

reversed specimens, 210.
Helix rbodostoma, 229.
Helix vermiculata, 229.
Hens, 28.

Hill of broken shells, 49.
Holland, largest supply of scallops

from, 103.
HolothuriadEe, 268.
Horse-musseL 69.
Horse-winkle, 187.
Hotel in Paris for pilgrims, 1 12.
Hyperoodon, or bottle -headed whale,

food of, 252
Hydra of Lerna, 256.

296

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Ika surame, or squids, 262.
Illyrian snails mentioned by Pliny,

224.
Image of St. James, 115.
Incitatup, the favourite horse of the

Emperor Caligula, 92.
Indian belief of the origin of pearls,

47.
Indians use Haliotidae for orna-
ments, 181.
Ink of cuttlefish, 264.
Investigates of the Commissioners

on the Irish fisheries, 133.
Irish names for cockle, 42.
Irish pearls, 71.
Irish rivers where are found the

pearl-mussels, 71.
Island of Re and its oyster-beds,

138.
Isle of Man scallop-beds, 104.
Isle of Wight oyster-beds, 131.
Isocardia cor, 39.
Jsocardia cor, account of, by Rev,

James Bulwer, 40.
Italian names for the Pinna, 86.

Jacobitae or Jacobipetae, 112.

Jacobsmuschel, 104.

Jambe, 178.

Jambonneaux, 86.

Japa, 93.

Japanese pilgrims wear the scallop-
shell as a badge, 117.

Jardiniere, 226.

Javanese belief that pearls breed, 47.

"Jemmy," the pearl-catcher, 72.

Jersey oysters, 131.

Joeles, 187.

Jugurtha loses his treasures, 222.

Juice of the purple-fish requires ex-
posure to the sun to produce the
colour, 201.

Kamm-muschel, 104.

King John and the Milton fisheries,

130.
King's cockle stewer, 45.
Kirkeens, or kirkeen thraws, 104.
Kitchen-midden in the Andaman

Islands, 150.
Kjokkenmoddings at Newhaven

Sussex, 50.

Kjokkenmoddings,Scotch, described,
50.

Klaffmuchel, or Mya, 8.

Kraken Norwegian, 255.

Kraken, altar erected on its sur-
face, 255.

Kreaklingur, or mussel, 59.

Kunyu, or Mya truncata, 6.

La Blonde, 61.

Laborde, M., partakes of live snails,
219.

Lady's dress figured with dye of the
purple-fish, 201.

L'Aillado, 244.

L'Ayoli, or ail-y oli, 244.

La Cacalaousada, 244.

Lampas, 178.

Lamperas, 178.

Lamps at Amoy, 184.

Lamps made of Fusus antiquus,
207.

Lamparons, 178.

Lampreas, 187.

Lampreys used as bait for cod-
fishing, 193.

Lampreys at Sawley on Trent, 193.

Lana penna, 87.

Lana pesca, or fish wool, 87.

Land polypus mentioned by Pliny,

256.
Langskoel, 14.
Lapa, or limpet, 178.

Lapa burra, 187.

Large oysters mentioned by Pliny,

126.
Laypas, 178.
Leaden coffins ornamented with

scallop-shells, 109.
Legend of the cuttlefish, 258.
Legend of St. James, 110.
Leigh oyster fisheries, 129.
Leister, or trident, 249.
Leitrigens, to cook, 124.
Lemming litany, 238.
Lepade, 178.
Lid scallop, 120.

Lid scallop used in shell-work, 121.
Lid scallop as Dawlish, 121.
Ligurian and snails, 222.
Lima squamosa, 206.
Limaia, or limaio, 229.

INDEX.

297

Lirnaou and Limat, 226.
Limassade, la, 244.
Limpets for bait, 172.
Limpets, to cook, 178.
Limpets consumed at Larne, 174.
Limpets, to dress, 178.
Limpets eaten at Eastbourne, 174.
Limpets, Eastbourne method of cook-
ing, 179.
Limpets eaten on the coast of Nor-
mandy, 174.
Limpets eaten at Plymouth, 174.
Limpets, large in shell mounds at

the Cape of Good Hope, 176.
Limpet and oyster catcher, 177.
Limpets roasted, 179.
Limpet sauce, 179.
Limpet shell, an urn covered with

a, 1 76.
Limpet-shell used by the Giant Tre-

geagle, 177.
Limpet-shells found in Cromlechs,

175.
Limpet- shells used for mortar, 177.
Limpets sold ready boiled in Truro

market, 174.
Limpet soup, 178.
Limpet soup at Naples, 174.
Limpets in South America, large,

173.
Limpets, strength of, 173.
Lincolnshire Fens supply Covent

Garden with snails, 221.
Lithodomus lithophagus, 85.
Littorina littorea, 187.
Littorinidae, 187.
Livree, 229.
Loligo, or squid, 261.
Loligo sagittata as food, 262.
Loligo subulata, 262.
Longeirones, 17.
Longherone, 59.

Long oyster, or Pholas dactylus,, 6.
Lulu el Berberi, or Abyssinian oyster,

183.
Lurna, and Gros Luma, names for

Helix pomatia, 229.
Lunot, 27.
Lura, 262.

Lustreless pearls, 100.
Lutraria elliptica, 24.
Lutraria maxima, or Great clam, 24.

Lutraria oblonga, 24.

Maclo cuadrado, 31.

Mactra corallina, 22.

Mactra glauca, or helvacea, 23.

Mactra lactea, 22.

Mactra solida, 22.

Mactra stultorum, 22.

Mactra stultorum, roads made of
shells of, 22.

Mactra subtruncata, or lady-cockle,
23.

Mactridae, 22.

Mactridaa, to dress, 25.

Madre-perna, 86.

Madrid, price of oysters at, 142.

Maganos, 262.

Makafechis, rat-shaped bait for the
octopus, 258.

Manche de couteau, 17.

Maneg de ganivet, 17.

Mangulinos, 187.

Man- suckers, 207.

Mariposas, 33.

Marolos, 58.

Meerohr, 187.

Meleagrina margaritifera, or white
pearl-shell, 182.

Melon de mar. 274.

Menestra de ostras y Almejas, 30.

Meninx in Africa, famous for its
purple, 204.

Messerschalenmuschel, 17.

Mexillones, 59.

Mezzana, 22.

Military order of Santiago de la

Espada, 114.
Milk rendered luminous by a Pholas,

6.
Milton natives, 130.
Minchas, 189.
Miranha Indians, 186.
Mocejones, 59.
Mock asses'-milk, 216.
Mock pearls, 185.
Mogne, 228.

Mogul, anecdote of a, 96.
Moldavian snails, large, 223.
Molimorno, 229.
Monacelio, 228.

Moonbeams injurious to fish, 142.
Morgueras, 17.

293

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

Mossel, Dutch name for mussel, 58.

Mother-of-pearl made of Haliotidae,
181.

Mother-of-pearl buttons, 182.

Mother-of-pearl cups, 184.

Mother-of-pearl crucifixes and beads,
183.

Mother-of-pearl, dishes and bowls
made of, 183.

Mother-of-pearl, fountayne and ba-
sen of, 183.

Mother-of-pearl, used in medicine,
186.

Mother-of-pearl, shippes made of,
1X3.

Mother-of-peorl, watch set in, 184.

Mother-of-pearl ornamentation intro-
duced by George Suter, 181.

Moucle de vigne, 229.

Moule. 58.

Mucianus and the oysters of Cyzicus,
126.

Mucilaginous broth, 217.

Muergos, Andalusian name for razor-
shell, 17.

Muerganos, 17.

Murex brandaris, 204.

Murex erinaceus destructive to
oysters, 127.

Murex trunculas, 202.

Murex trunculus eaten in Spain, 206.

Muscardino, 267.

Muscarolo, 267.

Muschel, 58.

Muscl, muscule, Anglo-Saxon names
for mussel, 58.

Muskels in brewet, 76.

Mussel-beds, or bouchots, 60.

Mussel-beds, Boston Deeps and
Lynn, 62.

Mussels used for bait, 63.

Mussels used at Eyemouth for bait,
63.

Mussels used for bait in Labrador,
69.

Mussels, to boil, Truro recipe, 84.

Mussels, British method of rearing,
62.

Mussels from Cornwall for Billings-
gate, 62.

Mussels and cockles in shell-mounds,
149.

Mussels consumed at Edinburgh and

Leith, 63.
Mussels, to dress, 80.
Mussels dressed a la Provencale,

82
Mussels fed on spawn of starfish

injurious to eat, 68.
Mussels fit for food in the winter

months, 68.
Mussels, French trade in, 61.
Mussels, French method of rearing,

60.
Mussels fried, 81.
Mussel fritters, 81.
Mussels injurious if gathered from

ships' sides, &c. , 67.
Mussels, large, sold in Truro market,

67.
Mussels and limpets eaten by the

natives of Patagonia, 69.
Mussels a la Mariniere, 80.
Mussels a la Poulette, 79.
Mussels, to pickle, 82.
Mussel pie, 82.

Mussels, another ragout of, 84.
Mussel sauce, 80.
Mussels scalloped, Francatelli's

recipe, 83.
Mussels, seaweed and shingle, render

embankments firm, 64.
Mussels, little, called seeds, 60.
Mussel-shell for cutting the hair, 66.
Mussels sent to La Rochelle, 61.
Mussel soup with crawfish, 78.
Mussel soup, 78.
Mussels, to stew, 81.
Mussel spawn, 60.
Mussels suspended from ropes ; attain

a larger size, 61.
Mussels to be transplanted in July,

60.
Mussels, value of, in times of scarcity,

68.
Mya arenaria, 9.

Mya arenaria at San Francisoo, 1 1.
Mya, natives of the Congo river

collect a species, 11.
Myadae, 8.
Myadse, habits of, 8.
Myadae, Hampshire method of cook-
ing, 12.
Mya used for skimming milk, 46.

INDEX.

299

Mya skin said to be poisonous, 9.

Mya truncata, 8.

Mye des Sables, Mya arenaria, sold

at Bordeaux, 9.
Mytilidae. 58.
Mytilus edulis, 58.
Mytilus modiolus, 69.
Mvtilus modiolus eaten in Ireland,

69.
Mytilus modiolus called the poisonous

mussel at Tenby, 69.

Nacherone, 86.

Nacre, or Pinna, 86.

Nahak, or rubbish collected by the

- disease-makers in the island of
Tanna, 195.

Napfmuschel, 178.

Napfschnecke, 178.

Napoleon I., the scabbard of his
sword made of gold and mother-
of-pearl, 184.

Nassa reticulata, 149.

Nassis, or osier kipe, 192.

Native, thoroughbred oyster, 130.

Natives of New Guinea and conch
shells, 196.

Nautilus, pearly, ornaments of, 185.

Navallas, or Donax trunculus, 20.

Navallinas, or Psammobia vesper-
tina, 21.

Navallon, or Mactra, 24.

Necklaces of limpet and other shells
found in Bi-itish graves, 176.

Necklaces of shells found on Egyptian
mummies, 176.

Needle coated with copper, 140.

Nero's golden house, 183.

Neumann's description of the dog-
whelk, 200.

Northumbrian ovster cultivation,
failure of, 133.

Nottle Tor, 51.

Nympsfield, 176.

Oatmeal and cockles, 55.

Octopi prized by the North American

Indians, 247.
Octopodia eaten by the modern

Greeks, 247.
Octopods in market at Smyrna, 247.
Octopus eaten at Nice, 246.

Octopus punctatus, 251.
Octopus sinensis, 260.
Octopus vulgaris, rare on British-
coast, 249..
Octopus vulgaris, specimens at

Eastbourne and Babbicombe, 249.
CEil de bouc, 178.
Ohrsnecke, 187.
Oil of black snails, 217.
Old English rhyme on snails, 239.
Old pearls said to adhere to the

shell, 90.
Olivette, or scallop, 123.
Ommastrephes, or Hying squids, 263.
Onyches, 5.

Onychoteuthis robusta, 254.
Order of the cockle, 115.
Order of the cockle given to Lord

Darnley, 115.
Order of St. James of Holland,

114.
Oreille de Mer, 180.
Orella de Mar, 187.
Oreya de Mar, 187.
Orrechiale, 187.
Orrechio di San Pietro, 187.
Oriental pearls, 73.
Ormers fried or pickled in vinegar,

187.
Ormer, or Ear- shell, 180.
Ormer-shells used to frighten birds

from the corn in Guernsey, 181.
Ormers, Jersey market supplied

from the French coast, 180.
Ormer, to dress to perfection, 186.
Ormond, 180.
Orolas, 24.
Ostend oysters, 1 28.
Ostend oysters sent to Berlin, 129.
Ostia blanca, 142.
Ostia vermella, 172.
Ostione, 142.

Ostras asadas, or fried oysters, 160.
Ostras en concha, scalloped ovsters,

166.
Ostras en escabochados, pickled

oysters, 170.
Ostras guisadas, ragout of oysters,

161.
Ostras & la Pollada, 163.
Ostrea, 142.
Ostreadte, 124. .

300

EDIBLE BKITISH MOLLUSCA.

Ostrea edulis, 124.

Ostrea Virginica at Cadiz, 142.

Ostrea Virginiana, American oyster,
143.

Ostrea, or Gryphsea angulata, Portu-
guese oyster, 141.

Ostreo-culture in the Adriatic, 142.

Ostreiras, 150.

Ostrias, 142.

Ostrica, 143.

Otaria, 180.

Otter-shell, Lutraria maxima, 24.

Oursin livide, 273.

Oursin melon, 273

Ova, or Mytilus modiolus, 69.

Oxhorn cockle, 30.

Oxhorn cockles prized by the
Brixham fishermen, 40.

Oyster, 124.

Oyster of Abydus, 126.

Oyster atlets, 155.

Oyster atlets curried, 156.

Oyster-baskets in Paris, 140.

Oyster-beds of Amoy, Foochow, and
Macao, 147.

Oyster-beds off Hay ling and Ports-
mouth, 131.

Oyster-bed in Lough Swilly, 134.

Oysters boiled, 163.

Oysters boiled the Dutch way, 161.

Oysters, black-bearded. 130.

Oysters as bait for crabs, 148.

Oysters, charity, 100.

Oysters and chestnuts, 165.

Oysters for consumptive people,
146.

Oysters from Cornwall, 133.

Oysters curried, 156.

Oysters, size of, Cow Bay, 143.

Oysters of Cyzicus, 126.

Oysters dried, 151.

Oysters fattest at the full moon,
142.

Oysters and eel pie, 168.

Oyster forcemeat, 164.

Oysters to cure freckles, 146.

Oysters, to fry, 159.

Oysters, to fry, 160.

Oysters, to fry, 160.

Oysters, to fry another way, 161.

Oysters fried another way, 159.

Oyster fritters, 166.

Oysters augratin, 172.

Oysters grilled, 161.

Oysters will not grow in the Baltic,

150.
Oyster heaps at Creggauns in

Tyrone, 149.
Oyster Jubilee, 134.
Oyster ketchup, 171.
Oyster loaves, 166.
Oyster loaf, 167.
Oysters and Macaroni, 167.
Oysters, to mince, 164.
Oysters, mussels, and periwinkles

at Leigh, 129.
Oyster moutb soup, 153.
Oyster packing industry, at Cris-

field, Maryland, 144.
Oyster pie, 167.
Oyster pie, an, 168.
Oyster pie, another way, 168.
Oysters and parsnip pie, 168.
Oysters pickled, 169.
Oysters, Glamorganshire way of

pickling. 169.
Oysters, Soyer's recipe for pickling

for the London markets, 169.
Oysters in Poole harbour, 132.
Oyster powder, 170.
Oyster powder, another, 171.
Oysters, ragout, 161.
Oysters roasted, 162.
Oysters, to roast, 162.
Oysters roasted, American recipe,

162.
Oyster sauce, 154.
Oyster sauce, brown, 154.
Oyster sauce, old recipe, 155.
Oyster sausages, to make, 163.
Oyster sausages, 163.
Oysters, scalloped, 165.
Oysters scalloped in the old way,

166.
Oysters always in season at New

"York, 143.
Oysters sent to Leicester and Wal-

singham in Queen Elizabeth's

reign, from Colchester, 128.
Oysters sent to Germany and Russia,

129.
Oyster-shell island on the east coast

of Corsica, 149.
Oyster- shells at Hissarlik, 150.

INDEX.

301

Oyster- shells as manure, 148.
Oyster-shells used by the Romans

as tooth-powder, 148.
Oyster-shells used in skin diseases,

148.
Oyster soup, 152.
Oyster soup with fish stock, 152.
Oyster soup, another way, 152.
Oyster soup, to make an, 153.
Oyster steak, 165.
Oysters, to stew, 157.
Oysters stewed, 158.
Oysters stewed with milk, 159.
Oysters, to stew another way, 158.
Oysters, to stew the French way,

159.
Oysters on toast, 171.
Oyster toast, 171.

Pao-Hing-Ch6, remedy for small-
pox, 102.

Pacauta, 93.

Padstow, large mussels from, 67.

Paignton method of cooking Cardium
rusticum, 57.

Palostrega, 86.

Palourde, or tapes, 27.

Palourde, or scallop, 104.

Pall Mall, 44.

Pandore oysters, 136.

Parisians eat snaik for breakfast,
232.

Patella atheletica, 177,

Patelle, or limpet, 1 73.

Patella reale, 187.

Patella vulgata, 172.

Patellidae, 172.

Patellidce eaten by the ancients, 1 75.

Patgellidas, 178.

Pearls artificial, 75.

Pearl-fishery at Bahrein, 98.

Pearls called bones or stones by
Greek authors. 90.

Pearls said to be congealed dew-
drops, 47.

Pearl-diver's badge of office, 101.

Pearl-fishery in Ceylon, 98.

Pearl-tisherv on the coast of Colum-
bia, 98.

Pearls, to keep colour of, 47.

Pearl-fisheries of Condatchy, Aripo,
and Manaar, 97.

Pearl-fisheries mentioned bv Marco

Polo, 92.
Pearl-fishery at Omagh, 72.
Pearl-fisheries on the Terski coast,

101.
Pearl-fishery at Tutikorin, 101.
Pearls found in the Aplysia, 70.
Pearls found in the oyster, scallop,

cockle, and periwinkle, 69.
Pearls kept in magnesia, 47.
Pearls like black muscades, 95.
Pearls used in medecine, 102.
Pearls in common mussel, 69.
Pearl mussels in Loch-Earn, Tay,

Ac, 71.
Pearl necklace of the king of

Maabar, 92.
Pearls, tears of Chinese mermaids,

47.
Pearls found in mother-of-pearl

shells at Birmingham, 101.
Pearls preferred to other ornaments

until the death of Maria Theresa,

93.
Pearls placed in the mouth of a dead

person, 97.
Pearls used in Irish religious orna-
ments, in 15th and 16th centuries,

72.
Pearls significant of tears, 96.
Pearl oyster, Meleagrina margariti-

fera, 89.
Pearl necklace of the Empress of

the French, 97.
Pearl necklaces and chains for the

hands and feet; worn by the

Medes and Persians, 90.
Pearls in Unio margaritiferus, 70.
Pearl called la Peregrina. 96.
Pearl pounded and drank by Sir

Thomas Greskam, 91.
Pearl-shell snail, Turbo cornutus,

182.
Peasants near La Rochelle gather

snails to send to America, 227.
Pechinas llisas, 23.
Pecten Jacobseus. 107.
Pecten maximus. 103.
Pecten opercularis. 120.
Pecten varius, 123.
Pectunculus eaten in the Mediter-
ranean, 85.

302

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Pedacchio di mar, 59.

Piede de caval, 86,

Peignes, 104.

Pelagia, the shellfish, 203.

Pelaghrrn, the juice or colour, 203.

Pellerinella, 123.

Peneyras, 187.

Periwinkle, 187.

Periwinkles, to boil, 190.

Periwinkle grounds near Pagharn,

189.
Periwinkles abundant in Scotch

kjokkenmoddings, 190.
Periwinkle, limpet. &c, found in the

Irish oyster heaps, 149.
Periwinkles, large consumption in

London, 188.
Periwinkles sent to London from

Belfast, 188.
Periwinkles in the Orkneys, 189.
Periwinkles sent from Southampton

to Jersey, 189.
Periwinkle soup, 190.
Periwinkle, variety of form, 188.
Periwinkles of various colours, 188.
Perles barroques, 93.
Peschio dell' arsenale, 59.
Petchinas, 27.
Petite palourde, or Pecten varius,

123.
Petite vanne, 123.
Pettenu, 104.
Pens de cabra, 4.

Phasianella, or Venetian shells, 185.
Philoxenus, the Solenist, 15.
Pholadidae, 1.
Pholas used as bait, 5.
Pholas collected at Dieppe for bait

and food, 7.
Pholas costata, a West Indian

species, 7.
Pholas crispata, 7.
Pholas dactylus, 1.
Pholas dried, recovers its lumi-
nosity, when rubbed or moist-
ened, 6.
Pholas sold in Jersey market ready

boiled for eating, 7.
Pholas, Normandy method of cook-

mg, 7.
Pholas, its perforating powers a

subject of discussion, 2,

Pholas, its phosphorescence, 5.

Pbolas eaten raw in Spain, 7.

Piddock, or clam, 1.

Pilgrim offerings, 113.

Pilgrirns-nmsckel, 104.

Pilgrim scallop, Pecten Jacobaeus,

107.
Pincushions made of shells, 65.
Pinna, Aufrere describes the collect-
ing of the, 87.
Pinna, British localities for the, 86.
Pinna forms a dish at an Attic ban-
quet, 89.
Pinna at Dawlish, 86.
Pinna or nacre, described by Pliny,

86.
Pinna, a recherche dish at Naples,

89.
Pinna, pearls found in the, 89.
Pinna pectinata, 85.
Pinna soup, 102.
Pinna wool, 87.
Pinneo fried like cutlets, 103.
Pinnophylax, 86.
Pinnoteres, 86.
Pinnotheres pisum, 68.
Pinnotheres veterum, 68.
Piscinola, the famous diver, 250.
Placuna placenta used for glazing

windows in Manilla, 184.
Piano rbis corneus yields a dye, 206.
Plato recommends the Polypus to

be boiled or roasted, 247.
Pliny and the luminosity of the

Pholas after death, 5.
Pliny mentions several kinds of

snails, 223.
Plinv recommends snails for a cough,

220.
Pliny's observations on the scallop,

121.
Pliny's supper, 224.
Pocuranac, 262.
Poisoning by green oysters at

Rochefort, 140.
Poli's method of cooking Cardinm

rusticum, 58.
Polpo, Italian name for the common

poiilp, 247.
Polynesian method of catching

cuttlefish, 256.
Polypus said by Pliny to arrest

INDEX.

308

haemorrhage, if bruised and

applied, 265.
Polypus, its dangerous powers, 250.
Polypus, symbol of Messina, figured

on a coin of that city, 265.
Pompeii, collection of shells dis-
covered at, 117.
Pontoppidan's description of the

kraken, 255.
Pop, 247.
Pope, the, uses a purple robe to

celebrate Mass in Lent and Ad-
vent, 206.
Porphyra shellfish, discovery of, 202.
Potage aux chobettes. 20.
Potage a la Poissoniere, 153.
Poiilp, habits of, 248.
Poiilp in the Mediterranean, 247.
Poiilp, large, at Nice, 249.
Poiilps live in holes amongst the

rocks, 248.
Poultry fed on Patella vulgata,

177.
Poultry fed with lustreless pearls

and grain, to restore brilliancy to

the pearls, 100.
Powder-horns, 86.
Praire, la, 31.
Price of Haliotidae in the Channel

Islands, 182.
Price of Helix aspersa, 228.
Price of Helix nemoralis, 228.
Price of Helix pisana at Marseilles,

229.
Price of Helix pomatia, 230.
Price of Helix vermiculata, 229.
Price of mussels taken at Lymp-

stone, 62.
Price of scallops, 122.
Prices of Scotch pearls, 70.
Professional pilgrim at Santiago de

Compostella, 116.
Proper seasons for visiting Spain for

scientific purposes, 232.
Proportions for mixing the juice of

the buccinum and pelagium for

dyeing wool, 203.
Protection to English pilgrims, 112.
Provencaux names for Helix aperta,

227.
Psammobia veBpertina, or the setting

sun, 18.

Psammobia vespertina eaten at Ken-
mare, 18.
Psammobia vespertina, localities for,

19.
Pudworm, 4.
Puerto, Santa Maria, supplies oysters

to Madrid, 142.
Pullers, sugar-loons, or colliers, 9.
Pullet, or cullyock, 25.
Pullet, or cullyock, used for bait,

26.
Purchase snails and eat them, 231.
Purple dye used by the Nicaraguan

Indians, prepared from shellfish,

202.
Purple dve produced from two kinds

of shellfish, 202.
Purple-fish, various kinds mentioned

by Athenaeus, 202.
Purple imported from the Pelopon-
nesus in the days of Ezekiel, 203.
Purpura Anglicana, 201.
Purpura lapillus, the dog-whelk,

200.
Purpura lapillus used for dyeing

linen in Ireland in 1684, 200.
Purpura lapillus eaten in France, 207.
Purpura lapillus eaten at Hastings,

207.
Purr, or butterfish, 26.
Pyrenean name, caracolo, for snails,

229.

Quadrans, a small copper coin, 223.
Quadrantes, eighty, contained in a

snail shell, 223.
Quahog, or large hard clam, 34.
Queen Elizabeth purchases Mary

Queen of Scots' pearls, 95.
Queen Mary's parure of pearls, 94.
Queens, or scallops, 122.
Quiquirigallas, 24.

Radiata, or Echinodermata, 258.

Ragout of cockles, 53.

Ragout of mussels, 83.

Ragout of oysters, 161.

Ragout of oysters, Ostraa Guisadas,

161.
Ragout of snails, Spanish recipe, 242.
Ran, 178.
Raucan, 104..

304

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSC A.

Raw oysters beneficial to persons
with weak digestion, 146.

Razor-fish, to cook, 17.

Razor-fish on the Scotch coast, 18.

Razor-fish soup, 17.

Razor-shells in the Bay of Concep-
cion, 16.

Razor-shells, collecting, 15.

Razor-shell, or Solen, 13.

Red whelk, Fusus antiquus, 207.

Red whelk used for bait at Dublin,
207.

Red whelk eaten in Liverpool, 207.

Refuse heaps on the shores of the
Moray Firth, 51.

Renouvelains, 60.

Restaurant for oysters in New York,
143.

Ricarde, or Ricardot, 104.

Rigardot, 42.

Rintillas, 262.

Rivers Irt and End, pearls found in,
46.

Rizzo di Mar, 274.

Roagan, 104.

Rocher de Cancale oyster-beds, 137.

Romans partial to snails, 223.

Roman ladies wore pearls at night,
92.

Romeas, 42.

Romera, 123.

Romeus, 58.

Ropamaceiras, 24.

Romulus employed the purple dye
for the trabea. 205.

Rossmassler and the empty snail-
shells, 233.

Rufina, 104.

Ruocane, 42.

Rush baskets containing snails, 227.

Sabot, or periwinkle, 187.

Sacred geese in the temple of Juno,
222.

Sacred shell of the Omahas, 197.

Saggio, Venetian weight for precious
stones, 93.

Saint Clement's Church, Sandwich,
108.

Saint James of Compostella per-
formed many miracles, 113.

Saint James's Day, 145.

Saint James, patron of Spain, 115.
Saint James and Queen Lupa, 111.
Saint James's tomb discovered, 111.
Saintonge and Aunis, snails ex-
ported from, 227.
Salsa de Almejas, 29.
Samoan proverb, 268.
Sand-clam, or Solen, 105.
Sauces for snails, 244.
Scalaria communis yields a purple

dye, 206.
Scallops, American recipe, 120.
Scallop, called the butterfly of the

ocean, 121.
Scallops, to cook, 120.
Scallops, to dress, 119.
Scallops, to fry, 123.
Scallop, great, Pecten maximus, 103.
Scallops from Holland for London

markets, 104.
Scallop, its movements described by

Mr. Gosse, 121.
Scallops at Clavijo dropped there by

Saint James, 114.
Scallop-shell in heraldry, 107.
Scallops with matelote sauce, 123.
Scallop-shell, pilgrim's badge, 107.
Scallop-shell figured on coins, 118.
Scallop-shells used as lamps. 106.
Scallop-shells on monumental slabs,

108.
Scallop-shells belong legitimately to

Compostella pilgrims, 110.
Scallops pickled, 120.
Scallop soup, 124.
Scallops, to stew, 119.
Scallops at Vigo the constant food of

all classes from Christmas to

Easter, 104.
Scallops at Weymouth. 122.
Scarcity of Oxhorn cockle, 40.
Scheidenmuschel, 17.
Schiisselmuschel, 178.
Scotch pear is in demand abroad in

the twelfth century, 72.
Scotch pearl-fisbery revived, 70.
Scotch rivers contain pearl mussels,

71.
Scotcb pearl trade in the reign of

Charles I., 73.
Scrobicularia piperata, or Mudhen,

26.

INDEX.

305

Scrobicularia piperata eaten at

Trieste and Venice, 26.
Sea-birds feed on Patellidae, 177.
Sea-ear, 179.

Sea-egg, or sea-urchin, 268.
Sea-eggs sold in the market at

Marseilles, 273.
Sea-eggs eaten raw in Chili, 272.
Sea-egg fishing in the Bay of Naples,

271.
Sea-snaegl, or sea-snail, 187.
Season for oysters, 145.
Sea-urchin, anecdote of Lacedae-
monian and the, 272.
Sea-urchin described by Pliny,

268.
Sea-urchin recommended to be

eaten raw, 273.
Sea-urchin and Sicilian children,

271.
Sea-wing. 85.

Seche, Seiche, or Casseron, 2-45.
Seed pearls, 100.
Senorinas, 187.
Sepiadas, 245.
Sepia, fried, 267.
Sepia, method of making, 264.
Sepia officinalis, 245.
Sepia used in painting, 264.
Sepia sold in the markets at Athens,

246.
Sepiata, or supieta, 263.
Sepiola Rondeletti, 263
Sepiola Rondeletti, Montpellier me-
thod of cooking, 267.
Sepolina, 263.

Seppietta, or Calamaretto, 263.
Septa of pearly nautilus, worn by

natives of the Api Islands, 185.
Septa of pearly nautilus worn by the

"gins" in Queensland, 185.
Serranos, 232.
Serranos stewed, 232.
Shark-channer, 100.
Shell cameos of Cassis, 199.
Shell cameos of Strombus gigas,

199.
Shell cameos of Sicilian origin, 200.
Shellfish good for those who take

too much wine, 28.
Shellimidy, or snails, recommended

for many diseases in Ireland, ^14.

Shellimidy forragy, or periwinkle,

187.
Shell-lime, 65.

Shell-mounds of cockle-shells. 48.
Shell-mounds of St. Michel-en -

l'Herm, 149.
Shells of Anodontae used for skim-
ming milk, 74.
Shells of Galicia, 112.
Shell-snails pounded, for a swelling

on the joints, 218.
Shells found in stone coffins, 113.
Shells used as trumpets in Muscovy

and Lithuania by herdsmen, 194.
She 1 1 trumpets used by sorcerers, 195.
Shell trumpets in Tahiti, 194.
Shells of Venus Chione used for

miniature painting, 32.
Shelley, arms of Sir John, 208.
Shelly-nieddings, 51.
Ship and escallop-shell, Order of the,

114.
Shligh, or cockle, 45.
Si-ieu, 180.

Silesian way of feeding snails, 225.
Silkworm of the sea, 87.
Silver spoon boiled with mussels to

prove if they are wholesome. 68.
Singular custom near Bordeaux,

225.
Sipia, 246.
Sir J. E. Tennent mentions large

oysters at Kottiar, near Trin-

comalee, 126.
Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson and the

lllyrian snails mentioned by

Pliny, 224.
Skulls worn by the women of the

Andaman Islands, 177.
Sliga-crechin, or the drinking- shell,

45.
Sligane-mury, 104.
Slugs, plaister of, 219.
Small crabs in mussels said to make

them unwholesome, 68.
Smirslingur, 8.
Smurslin, 8.
Snails borne as arms in horaldrv,

239.
Snail, crest of the Carpenters of

Somersetshire, and of the Galay

family, 239.

306

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Snailery at Dijon, 230.

Snail garden at Friburg, 224.

Snail garden in Lorraine, sur-

rounded with trellis-work, 225.
Snail hunters, 232.
Snail called Tardigrada domiporta,

or the Blow-going house-bearer,

239.
Snails at Algiers sold in the market

by the bushel, 234.
Snails cure ague, 211.
Snails a cure for asthma, 214.
Snails, to bake, 241.
Snails as bait for chub, 237.
Snails as bait for prawns, 237.
Snail broth, to make, 217.
Snails at Cairo, 234.
Snails consumed in Burgundy and

Champagne, 229.
Snails and confession, 235.
Snails for a consumption, 214.
Snails and earthworms for a con-
sumption, 214.
Snails and daisies for a con-
sumption, 214.
Snails an excellent remedy for a

consumption, 214.
Snails eaten in Corsica, 233.
Snails for a cough, recommended by

Pliny, 220.
Snails and cuttlebone for a web in

t be eye, 212.
Snai's, small white, as a cosmetic,

220.
Snails used in the manufacture of

cream, 221.
Snails, to dress, 240.
Snails, to dress, 240.
Snails exported from Crete, 230.
fenails eaten all the year round at

Hyeres, except at Easter, 227.
Snails, eaten by sheep, said to

flavour the mutton, 221.
Snails excommunicated, 238.
Snails, to fatten, 226.
Snails fed on bran at Naples, 226.
Snails, nineteen species eaten on the

Continent, 226.
Snails as food for birds, 221.
Snails unclean food, 235.
Sii;il> cooked in the French way,

240.

Snails of woods and forests, 230.
Snails, an old French recipe for

dressing, with a sauce, 242.
Snails, to fry, 241.
Snails pounded and worn round the

neck for fevers, 220.
Snails give a flavour to wine, 232.
Snails, grits of sand found in their

horns, recommended for stopping

toothache, 219.
Snails at Hyeres, 227.
Snails, to make a hash of, 241.
Snails pounded for an impostume,

219.
Snails for internal pains, 220.
Snails kept in jars, 225.
Snails, large specimens from Mol-
davia, 223.
Snails as a medicine, 211.
Snails brought to Nantes on Sundays

and fete-days, 230.
Snails, Norruandy way of cooking,

another recipe, 241.
Snails, large, at Oran, 234.
Snails sold in the Paris markets,

231.
Snails sent to Paris ready cooked,

231.
Snails formerly in Paris only found

in herbalists' shops, 231.
Snails at the restaurants in Paris,
( 231.
Snails, verses on, in Piedmont,

Tuscany, and Sicily, 236.
Snails with parsley, Caracoles con

Perejil, 242.
Snails as a plaister, 212.
Snails, when poisonous, 226.
Snails, when considered in season in

Paris, 231.
Snails swallowed raw, a remedy for

weak chest, 219.
Snails and sheep's trotters for a con-
sumption, 214.
Snails, smoked and dried, 244.
Snails from Soletum, 223.
Snails and black sope, a cure for

corns, 212.
Snails eaten in Spain, not only by

the poorer classes, 232.
Snails, Spanisn method of eating,

133.

INDEX.

307

Snails, winter soup of, 2-41.

Snails stuffed, considered very good,

244.
Snails eaten in Syria, 234.
Snails, method of transplanting

alive, 227.
Snails' teeth used as an amulet,

220.
Snails, or escargots, kept in winter

by the vine-growers of Dijon in

trenches dug in the vine-slopes,

225.
Snails at Vienna, 225.
Snails and the vintage, 230.
Snail-water, an excellent, 216.
Snail-water pectoral, 213
Snail-shells, ashes of, good for the

gums, 220.
Snail-shells found at Auch, Agen,

&c, 211.
Snail-shells found in kjokkenmod-

dings, 211.
Snail-shells found at Lymne, in

Kent; 211.
Snail- shells found on the sites of

Roman stations, 211.
Snail -shells holding forty sixpences,

223.
Solen, or razor- shells, 13.
Solen ensis, 14.
Solen ensis eaten in the Feroe Isles,

14.
Solen-fishing at Naples, 16.
Solenidae, 13.

Solenist, Philoxenus called the, 15.
Solenistse, people so called who col-
lected solens, 15.
Solen marginatus, or vagina, 14.
Solen marginatus prized as an ar-
ticle of food by the Neapolitans,

14.
Solen siliqua, the largest British

species, 14.
Solen, power of locomotion, 14.
Solens an expensive dish at Naples,

17.
Solens prized in Japan, 1 6.
Solens mentioned by Ulloa, 16.
Solens, another way to cook, 18.
Solens, oblong, 15.
Soyer's recipe for cooking mussels,

77.

Soyer's method of cooking scallops,

123.
Spaniards hand white wine round

with shellfish, 28.
Spanish cure for consumption, oil of

black snails, 217.
Spanish cure for headache, 218.
Spanish method of making fish sauce,

21.
Spanish way of cooking all kinds of

shellfish, 21.
Spanish recipes for cooking snails

with rice, butter, &c , 233.
Sperm whale, food of, 252.
Spout-fishes, 14.
Spondylus eaten in Italy and Spain,

.172.
Springing Loligo mentioned by Pliny,

263.
Spuonnolo, 172.

Squid, or squill, used for bait. 261.
Squid highlv esteemed by the

ancients, 261.
Squid, or calmar, eaten on the French

coast, 262.
Squid-fishing in Japan, 263
Squids, gigantic, from coasts of

north-eastern America, 252.
Squinns, 122.

Starfish feeds on oysters, 127.
Steam fishing-vessel built at Cock-

enzie, 136.
Steckmuscbel, 86.
Strombus gigas eaten in Martinique,

199.
Stumpfmuschel, 20.
Sugar-loons, 9.
Sun, the setting, or Psammobia

vespertina, 18.
Superstitions of the Ceylonese divers,

100.
Superstitions of the Scotch fisher-
men, 135.
Superstitious dread of fresh-water

mussels, 76.
Syrup of snails, 218.

Tallerinas, 20.

Tapa, tapada, or tapet, names for

Helix aperta, 227.
Tapes, or Almejas, 27.
Tapes aurea eaten in Ireland, 28.

308

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

Tapes aurea found at Helford and

Falmouth, 28.
Tapes aurea found in the Scilly

Isles, 28.
Tapes cooked Hampshire method,

30.
Tapes decussata eaten in Devon-
shire, &c, -5.
Tapes decussata more local than

Tapes pullastra, 26.
Tapes decussata common near Ex-
mouth, 26.
Tapes decussata how to find, 26.
Tapes decussata called Clouvisso, 27.
Tapes highly prized by the

Spaniards, 28.
Tapes au naturel, Almejas al

natui'al, 29.
Tapes, potage of oysters and, 30.
Tapes pullastra, pullet or cullyock,

25.
Tapes pullastra used as bait in the

Northern Isles, 26.
Tapes ragout, Almejas guisadas, 29.
Tapes sauce, Salsa de Almejas, 29.
Tapes soup, Sopa de Almejas, 28.
Tapes Virginea at Dawlish and

Tenby, 27.
Taprobane, island of, productive of

pearls, 89.
Taratufolo, 31.
Tarentine red, 204.
Tarentum, ancient dyeing-houses,

204.
Tartuffoli. 274
Tavernier's pearls, 98.
Tellinidae, 18.
Tellinidae rarely used for food in

Great Britain, 18.
Tellinidae mentioned by Athenaeus,

19.
Tellinidae, sauces made of, 19.
Teredo, account of, 4.
Teredo, said to be good to eat, 4.
Teredo navalis, and Teredo norve-

gica, 4.
Teuthidae, 263.
Teuthis, mentioned by Aristotle,

263.
Theognis, riddle of, 197.
Theophrastus on the habits of

snails, 228.

Thrushes partial to snails, 222.

Tootoofe, 257.

Torbay-noses, or Oxhorn cockles,

40.
Torbay-noses, to dress, 41.
Totano, 262.
Trabea, Servius mentions two kinds

of, 205.
Trabea, the royal robe worn by the

early kings, 205.
Trade, oyster, with Belgium, 128.
Trade, pickled oyster, 135.
Trade in snails at Covent Garden,

221.
Tridacna gigas, shells of, used for

holy-water, 148.
Trigonia pectinata, an Australian

bivalve, 185.
Trigonia pectinata, bracelets, &c,

made of the shells of, 185.
Triton nodiferus eaten at Marseilles,

209.
Trochidae sold occasionally as winkles

at Jersey, 189.
Trochus found in the Creggauns

heap, 149.
Trochus crassus, 189.
Trochus zizyphinus eaten at Toulon,

189.
Trogmuscheln, 23.
Trompetenschnecke, or Kinkhorn,

200.
Trough- shell, or Mactra, 22.
Troyes supplies Paris with the vine-
snail ready boiled in their shells,

231.
Tse-ga, Chinese name for Mya

arenaria, 11.
Tumps, 176.
Turbinellidae, 196.

Turbinella rapa, or chank-shell, 195.
Turbine la rapa as a wind instru-
ment, 195.
Turbinella rapa made into rings for

anklets and bracelets, 195.
Turbinella, reversed shells highly

prized by the Chinese, 196.
Turbinella, consecrated oil kept in

reversed shells by the Chinese,

196.
Turbinella rapa, sacred shell of the

Buddhists, 195.

INDEX.

309

Turbo cornutus, the snail, pearl-
shell, 182.

Tympana, or hand- drums of the
ancients, 90.

Tympania or tambour-pearls, 90.

Tyre, the purple of, the best in Asia,
'203.

Tyre said by Strabo to have had
numerous dyeing "works, 203.

Tyrian medals, 203.

Tyrian purple from Murex bran-
daris, 205.

Ulm. celebrated for its escargotieres,

225.
UnionidEe eaten in the south of

Europe, 74.
Unionidse and Anodontse used for

bait in the neighbourhood of

Nantes, 74.
Unionidse roasted in their shells,

74.
Unio margaritiferus, fresh-water

pearl-mussel, 70.
Unio Requienii and Unio littoralis,

74.
Unio tientsinensis, valves used in

medicine, 75.
Unio tumidus and Unio pictorum

produce small pearls, 73.

Valves of Ostrea talienwanensis, cal-
cined, and tised in medicine, 148.

Valves of Pecten Japonicus used as
shovels, 117.

Vanneau, or Olivette, 123.

Various species of shells called clams,
104.

Veglia, or Veggia, the Cyractica of
Strabo, 224.

Veneridae, 25.

Venus Chione, or Cytherea Chione,
31.

Venus Chione recommended by Poli
as food, 33.

Venus Chione, English localities for,
33.

Venus gallina, 33.

Venus mercenaria, the hard clam,
34.

Venus mercenaria, consumption of,
34.

Venus verrucosa, the warty Venus,

30.
Venus verrucosa, sold in the market

at Algiers, 31.
Venus verrucosa found in the

Channel Islands, and English

Channel, 31.
Venus verrucosa, to cook, 33.
Venus verrucosa collected at Herm

for food, 31.
Venus verrucosa eaten in Ireland, 31.
Venus verrucosa cultivated on the

coast of Provence, 31.
Vieiras, 104.

Vignot, vignette, or periwinkle, 188.
Vinaigrette, la, a sauce for snails,

244.
Volandeiras, 123.
Vongola verace, 27.
Vongulu, 31.
Vrelin, or brelin, or periwinkle, 188.

Walton, the Irishman, first estab-
lished mussel-beds on the French

coast, 59.
Wampum, or Indian money, 105.
Wampum made of Venus mercenaria,

and other shells, 105.
Wampum, the token of peace

amongst the American Indians,

105.
Wampum, or belt belonging to

William Penn, 105.
Wampum, a string of, 105.
Water-rats and Dreissena poly-

morpha, 74.
Wedge- shell, or Donax, 19.
Welsh rivers contain pearl-mussels,

71.
Weolc, whelk in Anglo-Saxon is,

200.
Weolc-basn-hewen, meaning of, 200.
Weolc-read, or scarlet dye, 200.
Whelk, buckie, or conch, 194.
Whelk, or purpura, symbol of Tyre,

203.
Whelk soup, 208.
Whelk soup, another way, 209.
Whelks, a species used as trumpets

in North Wales, 194.
Whelks for bait, 193.
Whelks supplied to Billingsgate

310

EDIBLE BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

chiefly from Hull and Harwich,

192.
Whelks taken in wicker baskets,

192.
Whelks borne in heraldry, 208 .
Whelks, to dress, 209.
Whelks, Dublin method of cooking,

208.
Whelks feed on oysters, 127.
Whelks, season for, 193.
Whelks troublesome to lobster.

fishers, 193.
White oysters, 139.
White oyster sauce, 154.
White snails from Rieti, 223.
Whitstable oyster-beds, 129.
Whitstable a fishing-town of note in

the reign of Henry VIII., 129.
Whistles made of the shells of Helix

pomatia, 238.
Wigwam Cove, piles of old shells at,

49.
Winter soup of snails, 241.

W T itch goes to sea in a mussel-shell,

65.
Women of the Shir tribe make girdles,

&c, of river mussel-shells, 186.
Wood-snail, Helix nemoralis, 210.
Wordsworth's lines on the limpet,

173.

Xarletas. 20.
Xelets, 123.
Xels, 123.

Yoags, 69.

Yonghal way of cooking sugar-loons,
12.

Zamarugola, 190.
Zamburifias, 123,
Zamorifias, 123.
Zottolina, 263.
Zostera marina, 273.
Zots-kappen, 40.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY GILBERT AND HIVINGTON, LIMITED,

ST. JOH..'s SQUARE.

n

* i-H '.-V' '*

Hr>

del _G. B - Sowerby, Mi

Vincent Brooks , Imp.

Pholas Dactylus. Piddock or Clam

j|l del._G.B. 5owerty,liLh

Vincent Brooks , Imp .

1. Mya truncata Gaper.

2. Solen silicjua, or Razor shell.

4.

:\

del _G3. Sowerby , lith .

Vincent Brooks , Imp

1. Psammobia Yespertina The setting Sun.
2. Mactra Soli da, or Trough shell.

5.

2.

del _ G . 3 . Sowerby, lith .

"Vincent Brooks , Imp .

1. Tapes pullustra. Pullet.

2. Verms Verrucosa,. Warty Venus.

del. G-.B. Sowerby, lith

Vincent Brooks , Imp .

Isocardia Cor. _ Heart shell or Oxhorn Cockle.

7.

U i.',3 Ir,/

■'$•--*■'

^dd.-G.B.Sowerby/lith.

Vincent Brooks, Imp.

1. Cardium edule —Common cookie.
2.Cardium rusticum_ Red nose cockle.

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M del _ G. S . Sowerby, Mi .

Vincent Brooks, Imp .

1. Mytilus eclulis. Common Mussel
2. Ostrea edulis. Oyster

■-.;■' ■■ V

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del _ G-. B Sowerby, lith

Vincent Brooks, Imp .

Pinna pectm&ta. Sea-wing

10.

j|l del ,_G.B. Sowerby, lith

Vincent Brooks , Imp .

l.Pecten Operculans or Painted scallop.
2 . Pecten maximus , Scallop

11.

del _ G . B . S owerby

Vincent Brooks, Imp

1. Haliotis taberculata, Ear -shell, or Sea-Ear.
2. Patella vulgata. Limpet

n.

del _^ G . B - S owerby, lith

Vincent Brooks, Imp.

1. Buccmum undalum. Whelk.
2.3. Litorma litorea. Periwinkle.

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TfilCHOPTEEA

9

9

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